Instrument Making the National Recovery Plan for the Macquarie Perch (Macquaria australasica) (Cth)

Commonwealth of Australia

Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999

Section 269A

Instrument Making the National Recovery Plan for the Macquarie Perch (Macquaria australasica)

I, MELISSA PRICE, Minister for the Environment, under subsection 269A(2) of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, hereby make a recovery plan for the listed threatened species specified below:

Listed Threatened Species	Recovery Plan
Macquaria australasica	National Recovery Plan for the Macquarie Perch (Macquaria australasica)

Dated this 1 day of February 2019

Melissa Price

Minister for the Environment

This recovery plan will come into force on the day after it is registered on the Federal Register of Legislation.

National Recovery Plan for the Macquarie Perch
(Macquaria australasica)

May 2018

Prepared by: Department of the Environment and Energy

Made under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999

© Copyright Commonwealth of Australia, 2018.

The National Recovery Plan for Macquarie Perch (Macquaria australasica) is licensed by the Commonwealth of Australia for use under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International licence with the exception of the Coat of Arms of the Commonwealth of Australia, the logo of the agency responsible for publishing the report, content supplied by third parties, and any images depicting people. For licence conditions see:

This report should be attributed as the ‘National Recovery Plan for Macquarie Perch (Macquaria australasica), Commonwealth of Australia 2018’.

The Species Profile and Threats Database pages linked to this recovery plan is obtainable from:
Commonwealth of Australia has made all reasonable efforts to identify content supplied by third parties using the following format ‘© Copyright, [name of third party] ’.

Images credits

Cover page: Cover page: Macquarie perch (Macquaria australasica) Luke Pearce, New South Wales Department of Primary Industries

Disclaimer

While reasonable efforts have been made to ensure that the contents of this publication are factually correct, the Commonwealth does not accept responsibility for the accuracy or completeness of the contents, and shall not be liable for any loss or damage that may be occasioned directly or indirectly through the use of, or reliance on, the contents of this publication.

General Acknowledgements

The Department of the Environment and Energy is grateful to the organisations and individuals who contributed to or provided information for the preparation of this recovery plan and were or are still involved in implementing conservation and management actions that benefit Macquarie perch.

In particular, the Department acknowledges the considerable input of the New South Wales Department of Primary Industries who provided much of the information contained within this recovery plan. Additionally, the Department acknowledges the effort provided by researchers and conservation experts, including academics, Non-Government Organisations, Australian Government and State Government staff, and members of the public, who contributed to and provided advice on the recovery plan’s preparation. Particularly, this extends to the participants of the workshop held to discuss and review the recovery plan and actions required.

Acknowledgement of Traditional Owners and Country

The Australian Government acknowledges Australia’s Traditional Owners and pays respect to Elders past and present. We acknowledge the deep spiritual, cultural and customary connections of Traditional Owners to the Australian land and sea country, including the Macquarie perch.

Contents

Figures & Tables

1           Summary

Macquarie perch (Macquaria australasica)

2           Introduction

3           Species Information

3.1 Names

3.2 Conservation status

3.3 Stock structure

3.4 Description

4           Biology and Ecology

4.1 Age and growth

4.2 Habitat

4.3 Reproductive biology

4.4 Behaviour

4.5 Diet

5           Distribution and Populations

5.1 Historical distribution

5.2 Present natural distribution

5.3 Translocated populations

5.4 Stocked populations

6           Decline and Threats

6.1 Decline

6.2 Threats

6.2.1 Habitat degradation

6.2.2 Introduced fish species

6.2.3 Barriers to fish movement

6.2.4 Altered flow and thermal regimes

6.2.5 Disease and parasites

6.2.6 Illegal/Incidental capture

6.2.7 Chemical water pollution

6.2.8 Climate change

7           Current Management Practices

8           Recovery Objectives and Strategies

8.1 Recovery plan objective

8.2 Recovery plan strategies

9           Actions to Achieve the Objective

Strategy 1 – Conserve existing Macquarie perch populations (including historically translocated populations in Cataract Reservoir and the Mongarlowe and Yarra rivers)

Strategy 2 – Protect and restore Macquarie perch habitat

Strategy 3 – Understand and address threats to Macquarie perch populations and habitats

Strategy 4 – Establish additional Macquarie perch populations within the species’ natural range.

Strategy 5 – Improve understanding of the biology and ecology of the Macquarie perch, and its distribution and abundance

Strategy 6 – Increase participation by community groups in Macquarie perch conservation

10        Duration and Cost of the Recovery Process

11        Effects on other Native Species and Biodiversity Benefits

12        Social, Economic and Cultural considerations

13        Affected Interests

14        Consultation

15        References

Figures & Tables

Figure 1: Typical adult Macquarie perch from the Murray-Darling Basin

Figure 2: Typical adult Macquarie perch from the Hawkesbury-Nepean system

Figure 3: Current and historical distribution of Macquarie perch in south-eastern Australia

Table 1: Major physical fish barriers by catchment within the current distributional range of Macquarie perch

Table 2: Strategy 1 Actions

Table 3: Strategy 2 Actions

Table 4: Strategy 3 Actions

Table 5: Strategy 4 Actions

Table 6: Strategy 5 Actions

Table 7: Strategy 6 Actions

Table 8: High priority recovery actions (Priority 1 as identified in Section 9) and estimated costs in ($000’s)

1   Summary

Macquarie perch (Macquaria australasica)

Family:

Percichthyidae

IBRA Bioregions:

Sydney Basin, South Eastern Highlands, Australian Alps, NSW South Western Slopes, Riverina, Victorian Midlands

Conservation status:

Statutory

Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Commonwealth): Endangered

Fisheries Management Act 1994 (New South Wales): Endangered

Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 (Victoria): Threatened

Nature Conservation Act 2014 (Australian Capital Territory): Endangered

Non-statutory

Action Plan for South Australian Freshwater Fishes 2009 list: Extinct

Advisory List of Threatened Vertebrate Fauna in Victoria 2013 list: Endangered

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Data Deficient

Distribution and habitat:

Remaining viable, self-sustaining natural populations within the species’ natural range:

New South Wales

-    Abercrombie River upstream of Lake Wyangala (upper tributary of the Lachlan River catchment);

-    upper Murrumbidgee River below ‘Cooma Gorge’ and upstream of Gigerline Gorge;

-    Hawkesbury-Nepean river system and Georges River (east coast catchments);

-    Adjungbilly Creek in the Tumut River catchment (upper Murrumbidgee River catchment);

-    Mannus Creek (upper Murray River catchment).

Australian Capital Territory

-    Cotter River and Reservoir above Cotter Dam and below Bendora Dam.

Distribution and habitat:
cont…

Victoria:

-    upper reaches of Mitta Mitta River catchment above Dartmouth Dam, including in Lake Dartmouth (where it is also stocked);

-    Buffalo River (Ovens River catchment);

-    King Parrot and Hughes creeks (both within the Goulburn River catchment)

-    Broken River itself above and below Lake Nillahcootie and in Holland’s Creek (in the Broken River catchment).

Translocated populations:

New South Wales

-    Mongarlowe River (upper Shoalhaven River catchment);

-    Cataract Reservoir in the (upper Hawkesbury-Nepean system).

Australian Capital Territory:

-    Molonglo River between the ACT border and the Queanbeyan River confluence (upper Murrumbidgee River catchment).

-    Cotter River in and above Corin Dam (upper Murrumbidgee River catchment).

Victoria:

-    Yarra River catchment;

-    lower and middle reaches of the Ovens River (along with stocked individuals) and in Lake William Hovell on the King River (Ovens River catchment);

-    Seven Creeks (Goulburn River catchment).

Stocked populations:

New South Wales:

-    Retreat River (upper Abercrombie/Lachlan system);

Victoria:

-    Expedition Pass Reservoir (upper Loddon River catchment).

-    Lake Dartmouth in the Mitta Mitta River catchment (where there is a natural population of the species).

-    lower and middle reaches of the Ovens River (along with translocated individuals), between Oxley Flats and Rocky Point.

-    Goulburn River, in the middle reaches of the Goulburn River between Molesworth and Trawool.

-    Yea River (upper Goulburn River catchment).

Habitat critical for survival:

Habitat critical to the survival of the Macquarie perch is described as:

·     all areas within the species’ range which are characterised by flowing runs or riffles and small complex rock piles;

·     the current area of occupancy of the species (including historically translocated populations in Cataract Reservoir and the Mongarlowe River in New South Wales and the Yarra River in Victoria);

·     any newly discovered locations within the species’ natural range which hold populations that extend the area of occupancy for the species;

·     unoccupied habitat within the species’ natural range into which the species could disperse, be stocked or be translocated.

Recovery plan objective and strategies:

The overarching objective of this recovery plan is to:

Ensure the recovery and ongoing viability of Macquarie perch populations throughout the species’ range (including historically translocated populations in Cataract Reservoir and the Mongarlowe and Yarra rivers).

The recovery plan sets out six recovery strategies that build toward this overarching objective:

1.     Conserve existing Macquarie perch populations (including historically translocated populations in Cataract Reservoir and the Mongarlowe and Yarra rivers).

2.     Protect and restore Macquarie perch habitat.

3.     Understand and address threats to Macquarie perch populations and habitats.

4.     Establish additional Macquarie perch populations within the species’ natural range.

5.     Improve understanding of the biology and ecology of the Macquarie perch and its distribution and abundance.

6.     Increase participation by community groups in Macquarie perch conservation.

Recovery team:

Recovery teams provide advice and assist in coordinating actions described in recovery plans. They include representatives from organisations with a direct interest in the recovery of the species, including those involved in funding and those participating in actions that support the recovery of the species. The Macquarie Perch Recovery Team has the responsibility of providing advice, and coordinating and directing the implementation of the recovery actions outlined in this recovery plan. The membership of the recovery team may include individuals with relevant responsibility and expertise from Department of the Environment and Energy (DoEE), relevant state governments, as well as experts from research institutions and consultancies, and private researchers; membership may change over time.

Criteria for success:

This recovery plan will be deemed successful if, within 10 years, most of the following have been achieved:

·     Populations of Macquarie perch have increased in size and/or distribution at each known location.

·     Self-sustaining populations of Macquarie perch have been established at locations in its natural range where it once historically occurred but no longer occurs.

·     A long-term population monitoring strategy has been implemented and is ongoing for the Macquarie perch in the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales and Victoria.

·     There is improvement in understanding of what threat mitigation is required to recover the Macquarie perch.

·     There is implementation of threat mitigation measures to protect known Macquarie perch populations.

·     Macquarie perch can be reliably bred in closed-life cycle hatcheries, which are supplemented with broodstock from the wild, as appropriate, to maintain genetic diversity.

·     Genetic diversity of the Macquarie perch increases or remains the same.

Criteria for failure:

This recovery plan will be deemed to have failed if; within 10 years, the following have occurred:

·     The number of populations of Macquarie perch has decreased.

·     No strategy for population monitoring has been developed or conducted for the species and population trends are not known in any or all of the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales or Victoria.

·     Little understanding of threat mitigation has been achieved to recover the Macquarie perch.

·     Little advancement in the implementation of a wide-range of threat mitigation measures (above current levels or activities) has occurred to protect known Macquarie perch populations.

·     Little advancement in success of closed-life cycle breeding within hatcheries.

·     The conservation status of the Macquarie perch has declined during the life of the plan.

·     Genetic diversity of Macquarie perch decreases.

·      

2   Introduction

This document constitutes the Australian National Recovery Plan for the Macquarie Perch (Macquaria australasica). The plan considers the conservation requirements of the species across its range and identifies the actions to be taken to ensure the species’ long-term viability in nature, and the parties that will undertake those actions. This is the first National Recovery Plan for Macquarie perch.

The Macquarie perch is a moderate sized, large eyed, secretive freshwater fish native to the cooler middle-upper reaches of the Murray-Darling Basin (Butcher 1967; Lake 1978; Lintermans 2007). The species was originally described from specimens collected from the Macquarie River in New South Wales, but has long since disappeared from that part of the Murray-Darling Basin. Museum records also exist for Macquarie perch from the Murray River in South Australia but the species is now presumed extinct from the lower Murray River (Hammer & Walker 2004). Macquarie perch are now found as far north as the Abercrombie River in the Murray-Darling Basin, as well as the eastern coastal, Hawkesbury-Nepean, Georges and Shoalhaven river systems in New South Wales (Harris & Rowland 1996; Lintermans 2007). Translocated populations originating from individuals sourced from the Murray-Darling Basin are known in Cataract Reservoir and the Mongarlowe River, in the Hawkesbury-Nepean and Shoalhaven river systems respectively. In Victoria, populations are known from the Mitta Mitta, Ovens and Broken river catchments and several tributaries in the Goulburn River catchment, in addition to a translocated population in the Yarra River (Lintermans 2007).

The Macquarie perch was once an important and valued species for recreational fishing, and some recreational fishing is currently permitted in Victoria. However, the Macquarie perch has undergone a long-term decline in abundance; populations have become fragmented and the species is now absent from much of its former range

The national recovery plan summarises the current state of knowledge of the Macquarie perch and contains detailed information on the threats being faced by this species. The plan also provides a list of actions and strategies to assist in the recovery and viability of wild Macquarie perch populations throughout the species’ range by focusing government, community and Indigenous groups support and involvement.

An accompanying Species Profile and Threats Database (SPRAT) page provides additional information on the Macquarie perch. The SPRAT page is available at:

3   Species Information

3.1 Names

Common name: Macquarie perch

Other historical and current common names: mountain perch, Murray perch, Macquarie’s perch, black perch, black bream, Goulburn bream, silver-eye or white-eye, goggle eyes, humpy back, butterfish and snub-nosed perch.

The Macquarie perch was probably known as Wunnumberu (pronounced ‘Wanambiyu’) by the Dhudhuroa who lived along the upper Murray River and lower Kiewa and Mitta Mitta rivers (Trueman, 2011). Other possible names are Nooraderri and Gubir by the Wiradjuri who lived in the area bordered by the Lachlan, Macquarie and Murrumbidgee rivers (Trueman, 2011; About NSW, 2013).

Scientific name: Macquaria australasica (Cuvier 1830)

3.2 Conservation status

The Macquarie perch is listed in the Endangered category in the threatened species list under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). Species can also be listed as threatened under state and territory legislation. The Macquarie perch is listed under both the Australian Capital Territory Nature Conservation Act 2014 and the New South Wales Fisheries Management Act 1994 as ‘Endangered’. It is also listed as ‘threatened’ in Victoria under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 and ‘presumed extinct’ in South Australia under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972. For up-to-date information on the listing status of this species under relevant state or territory legislation, see

The Macquarie perch was eligible for listing under the EPBC Act as on 16 July 2000 as it was listed as Endangered under Schedule 1 of the preceding Act, the Endangered Species Protection Act 1992 (Cwlth). The main factors that make the species eligible for listing in the Endangered category are that the Macquarie perch has experienced past decline and the threats impacting the species may not have ceased and that it has a restricted geographic distribution which is severely fragmented and continued decline has been observed at a number of locations in recent years.

3.3 Stock structure

Macquarie perch has several genetically divergent lineages across its range. Because of morphological and genetic differences between Murray-Darling Basin and eastern Macquarie perch (Hawkesbury-Nepean and Shoalhaven) there were calls for revising the taxonomic status to recognise the Shoalhaven, Hawkesbury-Nepean and Murray-Darling Basin as separate species (Dufty 1986; Faulks et al., 2010; Faulks et al., 2011; Pavlova et al., 2017a; 2017b).

Genetic analysis of complete mitochondrial genome sequences of 25 individuals by Pavlova et al. (2017b) found that differentiation among the Murray-Darling Basin, Hawkesbury-Nepean and Shoalhaven lineages supported emerging speciation, which had been inferred previously (Dufty 1986; Faulks et al., 2011; Pavlova et al., 2017a). However, there is no evidence that reproductive barriers have evolved between the Murray-Darling Basin and the Hawkesbury-Nepean Macquarie perch (Faulks et al., 2011; Pavlova et al., 2017b). A population of Macquarie perch has been established in Cataract Reservoir (Hawkesbury-Nepean system) derived solely from translocated individuals from the Murray-Darling Basin. Some individuals from this population have dispersed downstream of Cataract Dam and have hybridised with the natural Hawkesbury-Nepean lineage occurring in the Cataract River (Faulks et al., 2011; Pavlova et al., 2017b). Genetic analysis of microsatellite markers indicates that this dispersal may still be ongoing (Pavlova et al., 2017a). The Murray-Darling Basin and Hawkesbury-Nepean lineages diverged approximately 385 000 to 119 000 years ago (Pavlova et al., 2017b). There additionally appears to be divergence within the Hawkesbury-Nepean system, with the southern Hawkesbury-Nepean diverging from the northern Hawkesbury-Nepean approximately 191 000 to 58 000 years ago (Pavlova et al., 2017b).

An individual collected from the Kangaroo River (Shoalhaven system), prior to the presumed extinction of the Shoalhaven River lineage was found to be highly differentiated from both the Hawkesbury-Nepean and Murray-Darling Basin lineages (Pavlova et al., 2017b), supporting a long term evolutionary trajectory of the Shoalhaven lineage. Analysis of mitochondrial lineage divergence showed that the Shoalhaven Basin diverged from the common ancestor of the Murray-Darling Basin and Hawkesbury-Nepean around 1 332 000 to 419 000 years ago (Pavlova et al., 2017b).

Genetic analysis of microsatellite markers shows that, with two exceptions, all Murray-Darling Basin populations form independent genetic clusters, indicating a strong effect of genetic drift (loss of genetic diversity) due to population isolation (Pavlova et al., 2017a; 2017b), consistent with earlier studies (Faulks et al., 2011; Nguyen et al., 2012). The two exceptions were: Holland’s Creek and Lake Dartmouth in one cluster, likely reflecting recent stocking of Holland’s Creek with fish derived from Lake Dartmouth, and; the Lachlan and Abercrombie rivers (which are connected) in one cluster, in which there appears to be unidirectional gene flow from the Abercrombie River to the Lachlan River (Faulks et al., 2011), however the Lachlan River population appears extinct above Lake Wyangala (NSW DPI pers. comm., 2016; Pearce et al., 2017). Similar patterns of populations forming independent genetic clusters have been shown in the Hawkesbury-Nepean system (Pavlova et al., 2017a).

Given the current taxonomic status, this recovery plan remains relevant to all lineages of Macquarie perch.

3.4 Description

The Macquarie perch is a moderate sized, elongated, oval shaped, laterally compressed fish with large silvery-white eyes, a small mouth and a rounded tail. The snout is tapered and the upper jaw slightly overhangs the lower jaw. There are conspicuous pores on the lower jaw. Macquarie perch have a concave nape similar to, but not as distinct as, golden perch (Macquaria ambigua). They are similar in appearance to golden perch, Australian bass (Macquaria novemaculeata) and estuary perch (Macquaria colonorum). Juveniles closely resemble several pygmy perch species found in eastern Australia (Nannoperca spp.) (Family Percichthyidae).

The colour of Macquarie perch within the Murray-Darling Basin varies from almost black or dark silvery-grey, dark bronze to pale bluish grey or green-brown above, with off-white below. Fins sometimes have a purplish or yellowish tinge. Coastal drainage fish often have grey-brown, buff and dark grey patches.

Size varies greatly between Murray-Darling Basin and coastal drainage populations, with Murray-Darling fish reaching up to 550 mm and 4 kg (but are uncommon today over 1.5 kg), while coastal drainage fish rarely reach over 190 mm with a maximum recorded size of 253 mm (Lake 1959; 1978; Battaglene 1988; Harris & Rowland 1996; Douglas et al., 2002; Bruce et al., 2007; Knight & Bruce 2010; Lintermans & Ebner 2010).

Figure 1: Typical adult Macquarie perch from the Murray-Darling Basin

Photo – Luke Pearce, NSW Department of Primary Industries.

Figure 2: Typical adult Macquarie perch from the Hawkesbury-Nepean system

Note the substantially smaller adult size of the Hawkesbury/Nepean specimen (~17 cm) compared to the MDB specimen (~30 cm).

Photo – Andrew Bruce, NSW Department of Primary Industries

4   Biology and Ecology

4.1 Age and growth

Growth rates of Macquarie perch vary between and within populations (Appleford et al., 1998; Tonkin et al., 2014; 2017b). Sizes of individuals vary greatly between the Murray-Darling Basin and Hawkesbury-Nepean populations, with the Basin individuals having greater potential maximum body sizes and weights (Harris & Rowland 1996). Murray-Darling Basin populations have been reported to grow from 7–10 mm (hatched larvae) to 370 mm in length in the first five years of life (Harris & Rowland 1996; Lintermans 2002; 2007; Kearns et al., 2012b). In east coast populations individuals greater than 190 mm in length are rare, with a maximum recorded size of 253 mm and 0.29 kg (Harris & Rowland 1996; Bruce et al., 2007; Knight & Bruce 2010).

Size at first sexual maturity varies between lake and river populations, with a study comparing fish from selected riverine tributaries in the Murray-Darling Basin and resident fish from Lake Dartmouth finding that both males and females of river populations tend to mature at a much smaller size, yet at the same age, than fish resident in the lake (Appleford et al., 1998). Still, size at a given age is likely to vary within Macquarie perch populations, especially once individuals are older than three years (Cadwallader 1984). Males are reported to mature at two years of age and at 210 mm and females at three years of age and 300 mm (Lake 1967a). However, it has become evident through later research that size is not a reliable indication of age because local conditions may induce the species to breed at smaller or larger sizes. Estimates of mature females as small as 100 mm total length have been made based on the length-at-age relationships formulated by Douglas et al. (2002). In the Cotter River in the Australian Capital Territory, males mature at about 140–150 mm and in Lake Dartmouth mature males have been recorded as small as 117 mm (Lintermans 2007).

The maximum age potential for Macquarie perch is at least 30 years (Tonkin/Vic DELWP unpub. data, cited in ARI pers. comm., 2017) and could potentially be older. The species is relatively long-lived, recent reports of fish from Victoria aged up to 28 and 30 years for males and females respectively (Tonkin/Vic DELWP unpub. data, cited in ARI pers. comm., 2017).

Age and growth studies of Macquarie perch from Lake Dartmouth were undertaken by Cadwallader (1984), Douglas et al. (2002) and Tonkin et al. (2014). The initial research by Cadwallader (1984) found after eggs hatch, growth can be rapid, with a five-year-old fish being 380 mm.

4.2 Habitat

Historically, using the altitudinal zonation definitions of the ‘Sustainable Rivers Audit’ (Davies et al., 2008; 2012; MDBA 2017), which were utilised by Trueman (2011), across the Murray-Darling Basin the Macquarie perch was abundant in the upland zones of rivers (400–700 m a.s.l.), sometimes extending into the montane zone (>700 m a.s.l.). The species was usually abundant in slope zones (200–400 m a.s.l.); and occurred sporadically in lowland habitats (<200 m a.s.l.), generally at higher altitudes of the lowland zone (Trueman 2011).

The species was historically locally abundant in the Barmah Lakes and the Edward River, on the New South Wales/Victoria border, showing that it could inhabit lowland areas (Trueman 2011). However, evidence indicates it was rare in the Murray River, downstream of Barmah Lakes, and almost unknown in the South Australian reaches of the Murray River (Cadwallader 1979; Lintermans 2007; Trueman 2011). Overall, the historical evidence and the breeding biology of the Macquarie perch indicate it was a species primarily of the upland and slope zones in New South Wales, but in Victoria the species did extend in high abundances into lowland zones of the major tributaries of the Murray River Trueman 2011). The Victorian tributaries of the Murray River do not have the relatively long stretches of river length in the lowland zone as do the New South Wales Murray-Darling Basin rivers such as the Murrumbidgee, Lachlan and Macquarie.

In Seven Creeks, Victoria, Cadwallader (1979) noted that Macquarie perch were found where aquatic vegetation was usually present with additional cover provided by large boulders, debris and overhanging banks; and where steep rock faces, well vegetated banks and open eucalypt woodland typically provided shade. Brumley et al. (1987) found that Macquarie perch habitat sites in rivers consisted of a rubble substrate of small boulders, pebbles and gravel. Additionally, water depth was between 0.2–0.9 m (usually 0.4–0.6 m) and water velocity was between 0.3–0.6 m/sec. Brumley et al. (1987) also found that habitat areas often have a pool (usually 15–30 m long and at least 1.5 m deep) immediately upstream and fast-flowing broken water immediately downstream. Within Seven Creeks, the species still occurs in the middle reaches from below Polly McQuinns Weir downstream to habitats below Gooram Falls (ARI pers. comm., 2017), and individuals are thought to be in good condition in areas where deep refuge habitat from predators was accessible.. Upstream of Polly McQuinns Weir, the species is likely to be extinct (Stoessel 2009). Until recently, adults in the Cotter River catchment in the Australian Capital Territory principally resided within Cotter Reservoir rather than the river (Ebner & Lintermans 2007; Ebner et al., 2008) but that was probably due to the lack of riverine habitat available to the species given the barrier posed by Vanitys Crossing (Broadhurst et al., 2012; 2013). Within the Cotter Reservoir adults use emergent macrophytes for shelter and juveniles are associated with rock piles (Ebner & Lintermans 2007).

Preferred juvenile habitat in rivers is not well documented. Juveniles of 10–30 mm length inhabit pools in the Cotter River and are benthic and/or semi-pelagic during the day and inactive at night (Ebner & Lintermans 2007; Ebner et al., 2008; 2009; Broadhurst et al., 2012).

Reflecting of its records in the uppermost and high altitudinal parts of the Murray-Darling catchments it once occurred (Trueman 2011), Macquarie perch can tolerate relatively cold water temperatures. It has been measured to be living in temperatures as low as at least 4°C in in the Cotter River in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT Gov pers. comm., 2017) and living in the upper Murrumbidgee River at Kissops Flat where water temperatures regularly drop under 4°C in winter (Lintermans unpub. data., cited in Lintermans pers. comm., 2017).

A recent study of the Macquarie perch population in Lake Dartmouth found that growth and recruitment were highest during years of refilling, when amongst other variables, water temperatures were low. The study considered the influence of low water temperatures on high growth not surprising given the species’ natural occupancy of cool, upland streams (Tonkin et al., 2014). Observational evidence indicates that the Macquarie perch in aquaria show signs of severe illness or stress once temperatures reach 26°C or above (Lintermans unpub. data, cited in Lintermans pers. comm., 2017), consistent with observations of broodstock in ponds perishing when water temperatures exceeded 27°C (Trueman pers. comm., cited in Trueman 2007).

The species requires a temperature rise in spring months, generally to at least 16°C for spawning to occur, but it is possible that they can spawn at lower temperatures (Cadwallader & Rogan 1977; Harris & Rowland 1996; Lintermans 2007; Koster et al., 2014; Tonkin et al., 2016a). Recent observations of the species in King Parrot Creek and the Yarra River found that temperature had a significant positive influence on spawning intensity, with the greatest abundance of eggs recorded when mean daily water temperatures exceeded 18 C (Tonkin et al., 2016a).

Historical records indicate that Macquarie perch inhabited many types of riverine habitat that have now been extensively modified. However, Gilligan et al. (2010) summarising research in the Lachlan River proposed that Macquarie perch are –

”… riverine fish most abundant in reaches > 200m altitude. The species is heavily dependent on the availability of flowing mesohabitats (runs and/or riffles) and small complex rock piles (aggregations of 0.5–1 m diameter boulders) to provide cover. Extensive lengths of undercut banks in reaches with low coverage of flowing mesohabitats or limited small complex rock cover are detrimental. Depth, substratum type, riparian vegetation cover and aquatic macrophyte cover have little influence on the probability that Macquarie perch will occupy a reach.”

A strong positive association of Macquarie perch abundance/biomass in Hughes Creek has been recently reported between within stream woody habitat, riparian vegetation and water depth (Tonkin et al., 2016c).

The removal of rock and woody snags, introduction of aquatic pests, siltation and degraded water quality have likely contributed to the loss of quality habitat for Macquarie perch. Given that Macquaire perch lay eggs which settle into interstitial spaces between rocks and pebbles (Cadwallader & Rogan 1977; Cadwallader 1978; Tonkin et al., 2010), low silt coarse spawning substrates are critical for egg development. It is worth noting that the introduced fish species, brown and rainbow trout, also require such substrates (Harris 1995) potentially competing for habitat in areas where these species co-occur with Macquarie perch.

Habitat critical to the survival of the Macquarie perch can therefore be described as all areas within the species’ range which are characterized by flowing runs or riffles and small complex rock piles, and in some waterways, instream woody habitats.

4.3 Reproductive biology

In Murray-Darling Basin rivers, Macquarie perch tend to spend most of their time in deep holes and move to spawn during spring and early summer (from September through to mid-January) when water temperatures range between 16–20°C (Koehn & O’Connor 1990a; Ingram et al., 2000; Gilligan 2005; Tonkin et al., 2010; 2016a). Fish in lakes or impoundments tend to aggregate at the mouths of suitable feeder streams awaiting appropriate water temperatures (>16.5°C). When the water reaches the required temperature the fish move to appropriate riffle habitat to spawn and then return to the lake or impoundment upon completion of spawning activities or when water temperatures fall below 16.5°C (Wharton 1968; Cadwallader & Rogan 1977; Cadwallader 1977; 1979).

While historical observations indicated that Macquarie perch have a preference for spawning in upper reaches of catchments in Victoria and the Shoalhaven River (Bishop 1979; Cadwallader 1979), recent observations have indicated that populations are reproducing at locations both upstream and downstream of Goorum Falls in the Seven Creeks system in Victoria (ARI unpub. data, cited in ARI pers. comm., 2017). Running ripe Macquarie perch were collected from the Barmah Lakes area during studies in 1937 suggesting that the species may be able to spawn in some circumstances in lowland conditions (Cadwallader 1977), though the requirement for silt-free substrates probably remains.

Murray-Darling Basin Macquarie perch have estimates of age and size at sexual maturity varying from 1–2 years and 117–210 mm for males and 3–4 years and 100–300 mm for females (Cadwallader 1984; Douglas et al., 2002; Lintermans 2007; Tonkin et al., 2009). Fish from the coastal eastern drainages tend to have a smaller size at sexual maturity. Ripe females of 100 mm total length have been reported from the Hawkesbury-Nepean and Shoalhaven river systems  in New South Wales (Dufty 1986) and ripe males as small as 80 mm total length have been captured in the Georges River (Knight 2010; Knight & Bruce 2010). Observations of running ripe males have been observed in a shallow, riffle area at the tail end of a large pool in the Georges River, and contrastingly running ripe females have been observed attempting to move upstream in the Kowmung River and at Pheasants Nest Weir (which now has a fishway) on the Nepean River (Knight & Bruce 2010).

Fecundity is estimated at 32 000 eggs per kilogram of fish (Wharton 1973) hence a large (3.5 kg) female may produce up to 110 000 eggs. Eggs are cream coloured, approximately
1–2 mm in size and adhesive, and are usually found amongst gravel and stones in riffle areas approximately 50–75 cm deep with a flow rate of less than 1 m/s. Hatching usually occurs after 10–11 days at water temperatures ranging from 15–17^oC (Lintermans 2007). Newly hatched yolk sac larvae shelter amongst pebbles (Cadwallader & Rogan 1977).

Macquarie perch larvae in the Cotter River above Cotter Reservoir in the Australian Capital Territory have been observed during snorkelling surveys schooling in deep sections of river pools which have little to no surface flow along steep rock faces in the upper water column (at depths less than 1 m; Broadhurst et al., 2012). As they grew and became juvenile fish, they developed strong associations with the benthic substrates of boulders, cobbles or large woody debris at the head and tail of pools in relatively shallow water, where some surface flow is present (Broadhurst et al., 2012).

Macquarie perch have been particularly problematic to breed in captivity, requiring flowing water, and typically have relied on the collection of wild breeding stock (Trueman 2007; Farrington et al., 2014). However, there has been some recent success for captive breeding programs of the species by the New South Wales Narrandera Fisheries Centre hatchery, using a new approach employing an artificial stream to coax both males and females into breeding condition (NSW DPI 2010). Until this development, hatchery programs for the species have generally relied on capturing spawning-run fish from the wild (NSW DPI 2010), inducing individuals to spawn through the injection of artificial hormones to collect the eggs and sperm.

4.4 Behaviour

While anglers regularly capture the species during daylight, it is thought that Macquarie perch search for food more actively at night (Lintermans 2006a, Ebner & Lintermans 2007, Ebner et al., 2009; Thiem et al., 2013). Nevertheless, whilst the species is generally regarded as quite cryptic and docile (Lintermans 2007), during reproduction fish form dense aggregations at the base of pools and within riffles (Cadwallader & Rogan 1977; Tonkin et al., 2010). During such times fish also become quite aggressive, making the species particularly vulnerable to predation and anglers (Tonkin et al., 2009).

In the Cotter Reservoir, Australian Capital Territory, Macquarie perch have been shown to inhabit deeper water depths during the warmer summer months in comparison with other seasons (Thiem et al., 2013). Diel geographical range movements were significantly higher in winter than other seasons, probably due to having to move larger distances to encounter the same quantity of prey items, such as decapods which are in lower abundance during winter (Thiem et al., 2013).

Studies on Macquarie perch in Lake Eildon and Lake Dartmouth in Victoria, found that as water temperatures rose in spring months towards 16°C, fish began migrating to upstream regions of the lake ready to move into inflowing streams once the surface water temperature rose above this level (Cadwallader & Rogan 1977; Tonkin et al., 2010). Oral history recordings about the species, including those gathered from Indigenous groups such as the Yorta Yorta people, noted schooling and migration as a general trait of the species (Trueman 2011). Many of the oral histories  described a strong, but not unpleasant, odour produced by the species that signified to some fisherman the presence of these large aggregations of the species in waterways (Trueman 2011). Research in the upper Murrumbidgee River has found the species moving both up and downstream to spawn (McGuffie unpub. data, cited in Lintermans pers. comm., 2017). However, unlike the large migrations observed for impoundment populations in Eildon and Dartmouth lakes, recent studies of Macquarie perch movement and spawning in riverine habitats in Victoria have reported only localised movement and spatial spawning patterns, with restricted home ranges, in King Parrot Creek and the Yarra River (Koster et al., 2014; Kearns et al., 2015; Tonkin et al., 2016a).

4.5 Diet

Macquarie perch and trout cod (Maccullochella macquariensis) are the only two Australian species of the Family Percichthyidae, which exhibit a relatively sub terminal mouth. A sub terminal mouth typically indicates benthic feeding habits in fish species. Laboratory observations have shown that Macquarie perch feed using a sucking action; evidenced by the frequent occurrence of sand grains, gravel and detritus in stomach analyses of the species (Cadwallader & Eden 1979). Macquarie perch predominantly feed upon benthic aquatic insects and insect larvae, particularly beetles, mayflies, caddis flies and midges. Decapod crustaceans (shrimp and crayfish) are also an important food source with other known prey including dragonfly larvae, molluscs and small fish (McKeown 1934; Butcher 1945; Cadwallader & Eden 1979; Battaglene 1988; Lintermans 2006a; Norris et al., 2012). Indeed, the high high abundance of Decapoda may be a significant factor in maintaining the Macquarie perch population in Cotter Reservoir (Norris et al., 2012). In lakes and impoundments cladocerans (water flea crustaceans) can also be a significant dietary item (Cadwallader & Douglas 1986; Lintermans 2007; Norris et al., 2012) and in Cataract Reservoir small Dipterans (true fly larvae) were found to be the most important prey for the species (Norris et al., 2012). The cladoceran, Moina spp., followed by calanoids, chironomids and cyclopoids were the most abundant prey in the stomachs of juvenile Macquarie perch reared in fertilised earthen aquaculture ponds (Ingram & De Silva 2007).

The composition of diet for Macquarie perch in impoundments fluctuates depending on water level, and feeding activity is known to increase in times of flooding when fresh ground is made available (McKeown 1934; Cadwallader & Douglas 1986; Battaglene 1988). Macquarie perch have been found to feed on terrestrial invertebrates, such as arthropods and annelids, when the water levels of Lake Dartmouth rose rapidly over areas which had previously not been inundated (Cadwallader & Douglas 1986). There has been little evidence of feeding on terrestrial items from other studies focussing on riverine populations (Cadwallader & Rogan 1977; Cadwallader & Eden 1979; Lintermans 2006b).

The abovementioned study of the Lake Dartmouth population found that there was no obvious relationship between size of Macquarie perch and size of food items (Cadwallader & Douglas 1986). This is in contradiction to riverine populations of the species in the Canberra region, where ontogenetic changes in diet have been observed: as individuals mature, the importance of decapods increases and the importance of dipterans (true flies) decreases (Lintermans 2006b). Macquarie perch prey in riverine populations in the Canberra region is dominated by the shrimp (Paratya australiensis) and freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium australiense) (Lintermans 2006b).

5   Distribution and Populations

Figure 3: Current and historical distribution of Macquarie perch in south-eastern Australia

5.1 Historical distribution

The natural, historical geographical distribution of the Macquarie perch include all major river systems in the southeastern part of the Murray-Darling Basin in New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory and Victoria and the two eastern draining systems, the Hawkesbury-Nepean and the Shoalhaven, in southeasternNew South Wales (Figure 3). Within the Murray-Darling Basin, the species once ranged from the Macquarie River catchment in New South Wales in the north, where the type specimen was caught, southwards and then west in Victoria to the Loddon River catchment in central Victoria in the south (Cadwallader 1981; Faulks et al., 2010; Trueman 2011). In between these two catchments, the species was present in the Lachlan, Murrumbidgee, Murray, Mitta Mitta, Kiewa, Ovens, Goulburn-Broken and Campaspe river catchments (Cadwallader 1981). In eastern draining river catchments in New South Wales, the species was naturally found from the Hawkesbury-Nepean in the north, south to the Shoalhaven river catchment, including the Georges River catchment which occurs between these two (Faulks et al., 2010). In South Australia, it was likely that the species was scarce in the lower Murray River (Trueman 2011).

The population in the Queanbeyan River and in Googong Reservoir (its dam across the Queanbeyan River completed in 1979) is considered to be effectively extinct (Lintermans pers. comm., 2015). Upstream of Googong Reservoir, a translocated population was established in the upper Queanbeyan River soon after the completion of the dam (Lintermans 2013a). The fish were translocated from Googong Reservoir after monitoring showed that natural breeding was no longer occuring in the reservoir due to a waterfall preventing access to riverine habitats (Lintermans 2013a). This population was considered to have declined based on observations from net surveys for the species between 2001–2006, and given there was no evidence of detectable recruitment since 2001 (Lintermans 2013a). Monitoring of the upper Queanbeyan River since 2006 has only detected a single individual (in 2007), and it is likely that the species is now effectively extinct in this catchment (Lintermans 2013a; Lintermans pers. comm., 2015).

In the Murray-Darling Basin, Macquarie perch are typically found in the cool, upper reaches of river catchments (Cadwallader 1981; Lintermans 2007; Trueman 2011), however recent analysis of oral history records, newspaper records and photographs has identified that in some Victorian catchments the species was also once considered abundant in the mid to lower reaches (Trueman 2011). A summary analysis of these historical records made the conclusion that in New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory, the species was most abundant in upland zones. In Victoria the species was most abundant in slopes zones of river catchments but it was also noted that the species could not reach the higher ‘upland’ and ‘montane’ elevations in some catchments due to waterfall barriers, therefore possibly influencing the analysis (Trueman 2011). In the Ovens and Goulburn river catchments in Victoria especially, the species was commonly caught in lagoons in the ‘slopes’ and ‘lowland’ zones (Trueman 2011).

While analysis of the oral history records has concluded that the species was most abundant in upland and slopes zones of river catchment in the Murray-Darling Basin, there are a number of reliable records of the species having once been common in some of the lowland habitats of the Victorian rivers connecting to the Murray River (Cadwallader 1977; 1981; Mallen-Cooper & Brand 2007; Trueman 2011).

5.2 Present natural distribution

While there are existing populations of Macquarie perch in the Murray-Darling Basin and in eastern drainage catchments in New South Wales (Figure 3), populations are often small and geographically isolated (Lintermans 2007; Faulks et al., 2010; Pavlova et al., 2017a). The species is now absent from much of its former range. In New South Wales, the species still occurs in parts of the Lachlan, Murrumbidgee in the Murray-Darling Basin, and in the east coast catchments, the Hawkesbury-Nepean system and the Georges River (Lintermans 2007; Faulks et al., 2010). In the Australian Capital Territory, the species still occurs in the Cotter River catchment, which flows into the Murrumbidgee River, and the Murrumbidgee River itself, however it is now only in extremely low abundance in the Murrumbidgee River (Lintermans 2007; Lintermans unpub. data, cited in Lintermans 2013a). In Victoria, the species still occurs in the Mitta Mitta, Ovens and Goulburn-Broken river catchments (Lintermans 2007) (Figure 3).

The populations of Macquarie perch in impoundments such as Lake Eildon, Victoria (its dam completed in 1929 in the Goulburn River catchment) and Lake Burrinjuck, New South Wales (its dam completed in 1928 in the Murrumbidgee River catchment) initially sustained significant recreational fishing pressure but ultimately declined dramatically, with the species now extinct from both reservoirs (Cadwallader & Rogan 1977; Douglas et al., 2002; Lintermans 2006a; 2007; 2012). The Macquarie perch population within Lake Dartmouth, Victoria (its dam completed in 1979 in Mitta Mitta river catchment) also underwent a major decline, but has shown recent signs of recovery following increased reservoir productivity and increased restrictions on recreational catch (Hunt et al., 2011, Tonkin et al., 2014). Within 12 years of the completion of Dartmouth Dam, the species disappeared from the Mitta Mitta River downstream of the dam (Koehn et al., 1995; Lugg & Copeland 2014).

New South Wales and Australian Capital Territory

Below Cotter Dam (original dam completed in 1915 across the Cotter River, Murrumbidgee River catchment), Macquarie perch are sometimes recorded in the Cotter River and individuals are likely to have originated from the upstream reservoir (Lintermans 2002). Above the dam, Macquarie perch are now found in Cotter Reservoir and for a possible 27 km of the Cotter River upstream of the reservoir and downstream of Bendora Reservoir, now that a fishway has been installed at Vanity’s Crossing since 2001 and Pipeline Crossing since 2012 (Lintermans 2002; 2007; Ebner & Lintermans 2007; Lintermans 2012; Broadhurst et al., 2013).

A targeted survey undertaken in 1998 and 1999 failed to locate Macquarie perch in any of the Yass, Bredbo, Numeralla, Kybean, and Big Badja rivers of the Murrumbidgee River catchment (Lintermans 2002), where they once occurred. The survey recorded in very low numbers in the Goodradigbee River and reasonable numbers in the upper Murrumbidgee River from Cooma to Yaouk (approximately 1100 m a.s.l) (Lintermans 2002). The population in the Goodradigbee River is now considered extinct following a major bushfire in the catchment followed by a large rain event (NSW DPI pers. comm., 2017). More recent surveys indicate a small population persists in the upper Murrumbidgee River near ‘Cooma Gorge’ at Binjura Nature Reserve (upstream of Cooma and downstream of Tantangara Dam) (unpub. data., cited in Lintermans pers. comm., 2017).

No Macquarie perch have been reported from downstream of Wyangala Dam (dam completed in 1935 across the Lachlan River) for many decades (Trueman pers. comm., cited in Gilligan et al., 2010). Sampling in the Lachlan River catchment upstream of Wyangala Dam between 2006–2008, reported catching no Macquarie perch in the impoundment waters itself, but found Macquarie perch to be proportionally the most common large native fish in the Abercrombie and the Lachlan rivers (Gilligan et al., 2010). However, it appears likely that the species is extinct from the Lachlan River upstream of Lake Wyangala (Pearce et al., 2017). The species has not been detected in the Lachlan River above Lake Wyangala since 2008 (NSW DPI pers. comm., 2016).

Natural populations of Macquarie perch still occur in the east coast catchments of the Hawkesbury-Nepean river system and the Georges River (Faulks et al., 2010). It is likely that the natural population that once occurred in the Shoalhaven River is now extinct, with the last known population in the catchment, in the Mongarlowe River, presumed to be a result of translocated individuals from the Murray-Darling Basin (Harris & Rowland 1996; Lintermans 2008; Faulks et al., 2010). A recent analysis of the only available individual genetic sample for the Shoalhaven River lineage (caught in the Kangaroo River) was homozygous at 90 per cent of loci, which suggests that loss of genetic variation and individual inbreeding accompanied extinction of the endemic Shoalhaven lineage (Pavlova et al., 2017a). Where Macquarie perch persist in eastern catchments, they mostly occur in waterways upstream of where Australian bass populations are located (Harris & Rowland 1996).

Victoria

Recent observations have shown self-sustaining native populations of Macquarie perch are still present in Victoria in the upper tributaries of the Goulburn-Broken river system (King Parrot, Hughes, Holland’s creeks and the Broken River), the Ovens River catchment (including the Buffalo River tributary) and the upper Mitta Mitta River (including Lake Dartmouth) (ARI 2007; Ayres 2009; Hunt et al., 2011; Nguyen et al., 2012; Tonkin et al., 2014; Kearns & Tonkin 2015). While recent surveys have detected a few individuals in the Goulburn River 2.5 km downstream from the King Parrot Creek confluence (near Kerrisdale) (GBCMA 2015; Kearns & Tonkin 2015), adults are rare in the Goulburn River and it is too early to see the benefits of stocking. Anecodotal reports from fishers indicate that a small native population also persists upstream and downstream from Lake Nillahcootie in the Broken River (Kearns & Tonkin 2015).

Genetic work on Macquarie perch in Victoria has identified relatively low levels of genetic diversity within discrete populations occurring there (Nguyen et al., 2012; Pavlova et al., 2017a). All Victorian populations of Macquarie perch represent different genetic clusters except individuals from Holland’s Creek and Lake Dartmouth, potentially due to the stocking Holland’s Creek with fish from Lake Dartmouth (Pavlova et al., 2017a).

5.3 Translocated populations

A number of translocations of Macquarie perch have occurred within and outside its former natural range. Viable populations of fish sourced from the Murray-Darling Basin now exist in the Yarra River in Victoria (outside its natural range), in the Mongarlowe River (in the former natural range of the Shoalhaven River lineage) and in Cataract Reservoir (in the former natural range of the Hawkesbury-Nepean lineage) in New South Wales.

These translocated populations of Macquarie perch represent important sources for translocations back into existing populations given they contain important genetic diversity no longer present in the remaining Murray-Darling Basin (Pavlova et al., 2017a). These populations and the habitat they occur within, should be protected and restored. If these populations collapse, an important part of the genetic heritage of the species would be lost forever.

New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory

Outside natural range translocations

Macquarie perch were translocated from the Murray-Darling Basin (most likely from the Murrumbidgee River) to the Mongarlowe River, and the Shoalhaven River itself at Nithsdale, on multiple occasions in the late-1800s (likely to be the ‘perch’ referred to in the Sydney Mail, 22 April 1876, p. 530; Goulburn Evening Penny Post, 1 June 1897, p. 4). The translocated population in the Mongarlowe River once flourished, but has declined considerably since the 1970s (Lintermans 2008). The species was also translocated to Cataract Reservoir (Nepean River catchment) and the Nepean River itself near Sydney using fish captured from the Berembed Weir area of the Murrumbidgee River in around 1916 (SFD 1914; 1923).

Historically, Macquarie perch were translocated from the upper Murrumbidgee River near Cooma to two locations in the Snowy River (Stead 1913). The species has not since been recorded from the Snowy River.

Within natural range translocations

A number of translocations of Macquarie perch within its natural range have occurred in the Australian Capital Territory and surrounding parts of New South Wales. Individuals were translocated to the Queanbeyan River upstream of Googong Reservoir in New South Wales and the Cotter River to the area upstream of Vanitys Crossing before a fishway was installed at this barrier (Lintermans 2006a; 2006b; 2013a). Both of these translocations have been ultimately unsuccessful in creating viable, long-term, self-sustaining populations.

There have been translocations of Macquarie perch from Cotter Reservoir to the Cotter River above Corin Dam (at 1000 m a.s.l.) commencing in 2006 and to the Molonglo River in Kowen Forest commencing in 2007 (Lintermans 2013b; ACT Gov pers. comm., 2017). However, while survival has been detected, recruitment has not been detected at either location to date (Lintermans 2013b; Todd & Lintermans 2015; ACT Gov pers. comm., 2017).

Victoria

In the past, Macquarie perch were translocated, most likely in batches containing a mixture of other ‘perch species’ such as golden perch and silver perch (Bidyanus bidyanus), widely within and outside its natural distribution in Victoria (Cadwallader 1981).

Outside natural range translocations

It is considered that the species was introduced to the Yarra River catchment in 1857 from upper parts of King Parrot Creek via the upper Plenty River which ultimately flows into the Yarra River (Wilson 1857) and further translocations of approximately 18 000 individuals between 1909–1927 from various waterways, one of the source locations being recorded as Goulburn Weir (Cadwallader 1981; Barnham 1989; NFA pers. comm., 2017) for recreational fishing opportunities.

Within natural range translocations

Macquarie perch were naturally found in Seven Creeks near Euroa up to a natural barrier in the form of the Gooram Falls. During 1921/22 juvenile Macquarie perch were translocated upstream of the falls to near Strathbogie from the Seven Creeks itself and from the Goulburn River at Cathkin and have persisted as a self-sustaining population from downstream of Polly McQuinns Weir to around the Galls Gap Road’s westernmost crossing of the waterway (Kearns & Tonkin 2015). Other translocated populations were established in the Barwon, Latrobe and Wannon rivers but these are all now considered extinct (Cadwallader 1981; ARI pers. comm., 2017).

In western Victoria, still within the Murray-Darling Basin and to the west of the its natural, historical distribution, Macquarie perch were translocated into the Wimmera River catchment and into the Loddon River catchment, which likely represented the most western catchment containing natural populations at the time of European settlement, but these populations were likely supplemented with translocated Macquarie perch as early as 1873 (Trueman 2011). Fish sourced from the Goulburn River were translocated into the Bet Bet Creek, Tullaroop Creek and Lake Daylesford in the Loddon River catchment in the 1930s (Cadwallader 1981). Fish sourced mainly from the Goulburn River were also translocated into waterways within the Wimmera River catchment between about 1910–1930s (Cadwallader 1981). The species is considered extirpated from the Wimmera River catchment (Lintermans 2007; Vic DELWP pers. comm., 2015). Recent stockings have occurred in Expedition Pass Reservoir, which is part of the Loddon River catchment (see below in ‘5.4 Stocked populations’).

Recently, there has been translocation of sub-adult individuals from the Lake Dartmouth population in the Mitta Mitta River catchment to the middle reaches of the Ovens River in addition to stocked juveniles/fingerlings (see below in ‘5.4 Stocked populations’) with the aim of establishing a range of age and developmental stages that are similar to those which exist in natural populations (Vic DEPI 2014a). Recent surveys have demonstrated that both translocated and stocked fish are surviving with some evidence of natural recruitment (Vic DELWP unpub. data, cited in ARI pers. comm., 2017). There have also been individuals translocated from Lake Dartmouth to Lake William Hovell, a dammed reservoir on the King River (Ovens River catchment) in Victoria (Vic DEDJTR 2015a).

5.4 Stocked populations

Until recently, most hatchery programs for Macquarie perch have relied on capturing spawning-run fish from the wild (NSW DPI 2010) and inducing individuals to spawn through the injection of artificial hormones to collect the eggs and sperm. While the species can live in impoundments, as a truly riverine species it requires fast-flowing water with gravel-cobble substrates to breed (Cadwallader & Rogan 1977; Appleford et al., 1998; Lintermans 2007; 2013).

The requirement for flowing water conditions to stimulate breeding in Macquarie perch is supported by the many failures of impoundment populations to be self-sustaining. Research on the now extinct Queanbeyan River population of the species found evidence of recruitment until 2001 but not thereafter, and this may have been the effect of the millennium drought (between 1997–2010) (Lintermans 2013a). The millennium drought would have reduced the frequency of available fast-flowing conditions in the waterway available to the species, and also decreased opportunities for fish to move between habitats in the river, and this could explain the persistent breeding failure since 2001 (Lintermans 2013a).

There have been a number of breeding investigations for Macquarie perch to support a hatchery production source. Early attempts were made in the early-1900s to artificially propagate Macquarie perch in New South Wales with little success (Trueman 2007). There are also reports of a backyard hatchery operating in the Heidelberg area in Victoria which successfully spawned captive Macquarie perch in the 1930s, however the exact procedure used was never disclosed (Trueman 2007). Observations made by a landowner in 1976 on his property at Strathbogie in Victoria, who kept Macquarie perch in small dams noticed a pair of fish engaging in spawning activity near where a small perennial brook entered the pond they were kept within (Trueman 2007). Unsuccessful attempts were made by the Victorian Government between the late-1950s to early-1960s to produce juvenile Macquarie perch from broodstock sourced on their annual spawning run from the Goulburn and Jamieson rivers upstream of Lake Eildon (Trueman 2007). Research on developing hatchery produced Macquarie perch began in 1978 at the Narrandera Fisheries Centre (formerly the Inland Fisheries Research Station (IFRS)) in New South Wales trialling hormonal treatments to induce spawning with limited success (Ingram et al., 1994). The New South Wales Government halted its captive breeding research on the species in 1990 until the early-2000s, due to this lack of success (Ingram et al., 1994; NSW DPI 2010). Trials beginning in 1983 at Snobs Creek Fish Hatchery in Victoria, involved catching males and running-ripe females from Lake Dartmouth during their annual spawn run into the inflowing Mitta Mita River (Gooley & McDonald 1988; Trueman 2007). Hormonal treatments were administered to the captured fish at the hatchery, however there was limited success in producing large numbers of juveniles (Trueman 2007). In 1994, the independent group – Native Fish Australia (Victoria) (NFA Vic), were able to induce spawning of Macquarie perch sourced from the Yarra River, at hatchery facilities provided by La Trobe University and reared 5000 juveniles to a size of 25 mm for release into the Yarra River near Warrandyte (Trueman 2007). This was the first reported example of Macquarie perch completing final oocyte maturation and ovulation under artificial conditions (Trueman 2007). NFA Vic intends on breeding Macquarie perch in 2017 for stocking into Victorian catchments (NFA pers. comm., 2017).

The Narrandera Fisheries Centre has had success in breeding the species in captivity, using a new approach employing an artificial stream with flowing water and coarse substrates to coax both males and females into breeding condition (NSW DPI 2010). The Victorian program at Snobs Creek Fish Hatchery was halted in the mid-1990s, primarily due to difficulties in attaining mature fish in spawning condition captured from Lake Dartmouth (Gray et al., 2000; Ingram et al., 2000). Fingerling production for stocking recommenced in 2010 (Vic DEDJTR 2015b), and the successful induction of spawning and hatching of larvae from captive-held broodstock at Snobs Creek Fishery Hatchery occurred in 2010 and 2011, however results were still inconsistent and further research is needed to refine the methods (Ho & Ingram 2012). Between 1986–1997 approximately 456 000 juveniles, sourced from production at the Snobs Creek Fish Hatchery, were released into nine sites throughout the Murray-Darling Basin (Ingram et al., 2000). Since 2000, an approximately 165 000 juveniles have been stocked into Victorian waters (see below).

New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory

Captive breeding trials using broodstock collected from the Abercrombie River (Lachlan River catchment) in 2008 successfully bred Macquarie perch in 2010 in a purpose built pond with artificial stream habitat without the use of “ripe”/spawning run fish (Pearce et al., 2017). In 2011 and 2012, 136 and 7500 Macquarie perch were stocked into the Retreat River, a tributary of the Abercrombie River (Pearce et al., 2017). The Retreat River was chosen for these stockings given it provides a suitable refuge from redfin, as a waterfall acts as a natural barrier to redfin migrating upstream from areas where they are present (Pearce et al., 2017). A third release of 11 700 fingerlings into the same stretch of the Retreat River occurred in 2014, and broodfish were released into the nearby Bolong River, also a tributary of the Abercrombie River (Pearce et al., 2017). In 2017, the first evidence of recruitment from these stocked individuals was detected with juveniles collected from the Retreat River (NSW pers. comm., 2017; Pearce et al., 2017). Fingerling production has since ceased at the Narrandera Fisheries Centre.

Victoria

Recent stockings of Macquarie perch fingerlings into Victorian waters as part of the Victorian Fish Stocking Program include:

·     2017 – 5000 into Expedition Pass Reservoir (Farraday) and 8300 in February into the Ovens River (Oxley Flats to Rocky Point).

·     2016 – 3000 in January into Expedition Pass Reservoir (Farraday) and 6400 into the Ovens River (Oxley Flats to Rocky Point).

·     2015 – 5000 in February into Expedition Pass Reservoir (Farraday); 12 750 in February into the Goulburn River (Molesworth to Trawool), and; 13 600 in February into the Ovens River (Oxley Flats to Rocky Point).

·     2014 – 5000 in February into Expedition Pass Reservoir (Farraday); 27 500 in February into the Goulburn River (Molesworth to Trawool), and; 40 500 in February into the Ovens River (Myrtleford area).

·     2013 – 5000 in January into Lake Dartmouth (Dartmouth); 5000 in January into Expedition Pass Reservoir (Farraday); 6320 in January into the Goulburn River (above Nagambie Lake to Seymour), and; 6320 in January into the Ovens River (Myrtleford area)

·     2012 – 3620 in January into Expedition Pass Reservoir (Farraday).

·     2011 – 3000 in February into Expedition Pass Reservoir (Farraday); 1325 into the Ovens River at Rocky Point and 1325 at Whorouly Bridge, and; 2650 into William Hovell Lake (Cheshunt South).

·     2010 – 2800 in February and 500 in March into Expedition Pass Reservoir (Farraday) and 250 into Holland’s Creek (Tatong) in February (Gray 2010; Vic DEPI 2014a; 2014b; Vic DEDJTR 2015b; VFA 2017).

Fingerlings have also been previously stocked in the Upper Coliban Reservoir near the town of Tylden (Lintermans, 2007), however this population is likely extirpated (Vic DELWP pers. comm., 2017).

The small Macquarie perch population in Yea River is likely to be derived from the stockings which occurred there in the 1980s and 90s (Kearns & Tonkin 2015). At least three age cohorts have been observed there, confirming natural recruitment is occurring, albeit at very low levels (Kearns & Tonkin 2015).

6   Decline and Threats

6.1 Decline

There was a lack of focussed scientific studies when the main declines for Macquarie perch occurred between the 1920–1960. The best known work of early accounts of the fish fauna of the Murray-Darling Basin was conducted by Colonel John O. Langtry between 1949–1950 (Cadwallader 1977). Langtry’s study focussed on lowland habitats and, as Langtry notes, followed significant changes to the native fish compositions in the system already (Cadwallader 1977; Trueman 2011).

However, the research of oral histories, newspaper records and photographs undertaken by Trueman (2011), obtained more records in the Murray-Darling Basin of Macquarie perch than for any other individual species, which suggests that its abundance was ‘prolific’ in the first 100 years of European settlement of Australia. Trueman (2011) uses an approach referred to as ‘historical triangulation’, which is becoming increasingly accepted in documenting environmental change in ecological studies. Triangulation refers to the practice of using two or more sources to verify observations, and its use is well established in the social sciences and is used by doctors when evaluating patient history (Robertson et al., 2000). Oral histories are particularly powerful for river management in Australia, in that they provide information that precedes formal agency or research institution records (Boulton et al., 2004). Trueman (2011) utilised photographs, newspaper stories and supporting accounts to verify oral recollections of lay observers (oral histories). For Macquarie perch, this historical research uncovered, and also confirmed that significant declines in the species’ populations were evident by the early twentieth century in some areas, and that widespread population extinctions occurred between 1920–1960 (Trueman 2011).

The conclusions of Trueman’s (2011) research for Macquarie perch are supported by the work of the “Sustainable Rivers Audit” (SRA), which undertook a systematic assessment of the health of all river ecosystems in the Murray-Darling Basin for the Murray-Darling Basin Authority. The assessment was undertaken on each of the 23 major river valleys in two reports, SRA1 using data collected between 2004–2007 and SRA2 between 2008–2010 (Davies et al., 2008; 2012). ‘Rarity’ scores were developed by an expert panel for each fish species based on the likelihood of a species being found at a site, using the SRA sampling methods, if the encompassing altitudinal zone is in ‘Reference Condition’ (i.e. that is in a ‘condition that would be likely to prevail now had there been no significant human intervention in that region’) (Davies et al., 2008; 2012).

By the end of the 1960s, endemic populations in New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory were largely restricted to the upper Lachlan and Murrumbidgee river catchments, with a small population persisting in Mannus Creek in the upper Murray River catchment (Trueman 2011; Long 2017). In Victoria by the end of the 1960s, relict populations were restricted to the slopes and upland zones of the Mitta Mitta, Ovens and Goulburn-Broken river catchments (Trueman 2011).

New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory

Only five individuals were caught in two catchment valleys, the Goulburn and the Murrumbidgee river valleys, in sampling for the Sustainable Rivers Audit of the Murray-Darling Basin between 2004–2007 (Davies et al., 2008) and 12 individuals were caught in three valleys, the Broken, the Goulburn and the Murrumbidgee, between 2008–2010 (Davies et al., 2012).

Macquarie perch were captured regularly in the Macquarie River catchment in New South Wales until the 1950s but historical research indicates that the species had disappeared and become extinct in the catchment by the 1960s (Trueman 2011). The estimate of the species’ abundance in the Macquarie River catchment at the time of European settlement were rated as: rare in the lowland zone of the Macquarie River catchment; common in the slopes zone, and; abundant in both the upland and montane zones of the catchment (Trueman 2011). SRA1 and 2 recorded no Macquarie perch in surveys at 21 sites across the catchment both in 2007 and 2009 (Davies et al., 2008; 2012). SRA rarity scores for the species in the Macquarie River catchment were: absent in the lowland zone; occasional in the slopes zone; common in the upland and montane zones (these zones were merged in the SRA analysis for the Macquarie River catchment) (MDBA 2017).

For the Lachlan River catchment, historical research indicates that Macquarie perch initially flourished in Lake Wyangala in the 1930s soon after its construction (Trueman 2011). However, the species experienced a decline in the Abercrombie and Lachlan rivers above Lake Wyangala in the 1950s and 1960s, while downstream of Wyangala Dam decline was noted in the 1930s (Trueman 2011). It is almost certain that the species is now extinct in the Lachlan River downstream of Wyangala Dam (Gilligan et al., 2010). The estimate of Macquarie perch abundance in the Lachlan catchment at the time of European settlement were rated as: absent from the lowland zone; occasional from the slopes zone, and; abundant from both the upland and montane zones (Trueman 2011). SRA1 and 2 recorded no Macquarie perch in surveys at 28 sites across the catchment both in 2006 and 2009 (Davies et al., 2008; 2012). SRA rarity scores for Macquarie perch in the Lachlan River catchment were: absent in the lowland zone; occasional in the slopes zone, and; common in the upland and montane zones (Davies et al., 2008; MDBA 2017). While Macquarie perch were not caught in the Lachlan River catchment during the SRA1 and 2 surveys (Davies et al., 2008), the species is known to occur in parts of the Abercrombie River (Pearce et al., 2017). The species has not been recorded in the Lachlan River upstream of Lake Wyangala since 2008 where it is now considered extinct (NSW DPI pers. comm., 2016; Pearce et al., 2017). There have been stockings of the species into the Retreat River betweem 2011–2014 and recruitment has been detected from these stocked individuals (Pearce 2013; Pearce et al., 2017).

For the Murrumbidgee River catchment, historical research indicates that for the majority of the catchment the Macquarie perch declined in abundance between the 1930s–1960s and by the 1980s had become rare in many parts of the catchment (Trueman 2011). Initially, the species flourished in Lake Burrinjuck after its construction in the early-1900s until at least the 1950s (Trueman 2011), and indications are that it remained common in the lake until the 1980s, as the species was reported as abundant there in 1986 (Burchmore et al., 1988). and then declined to the point that by the 1970s it could only be caught during spawning migrations into upstream areas and by the 1980s it was considered rare (Trueman 2011). The species declined sharply in the Murrumbidgee River upstream from Lake Burrinjuck in the Australian Capital Territory during the 1980s (Lintermans 2002). A relict population of the species continues to remain strong in the Cotter Reservoir on the Cotter River in the Australian Capital Territory (Lintermans 2012; Farrington et al., 2014). The species is now considered extinct in the Queanbeyan River upstream of Googong Reservoir (the Queanbeyan River is a tributary of the Molonglo River, which in turn is a tributary of the upper Murrumbidgee River) (Lintermans pers. comm., 2015). A translocated self-sustaining population had persisted in the Queanbeyan River and had shown signs of recruitment until the early 2000s but declined thereafter (Lintermans 2013a). The estimate of Macquarie perch abundance at the time of European settlement for the Murrumbidgee River catchment were rated as common from the lowland zone and abundant from the slopes, upland and montane zones (Trueman 2011).

SRA1 and 2 recorded three and 10 Macquarie perch individuals in surveys at 28 sites across the Murrumbidgee River catchment both in 2007 and 2008 respectively (Davies et al., 2008; 2012). SRA rarity scores for the species in the catchment were: rare in the lowland zone; occassional in the slopes zone, and; common in the upland and montane zones (MDBA 2017).

For the Upper Murray River catchment, historical research indicates that the Macquarie perch declined in abundance from the time of World War I to the 1930s (Trueman 2011). The species was abundant in the area near Khancoban in New South Wales until the 1930s when they became sparse (Harris et al., 2006; Trueman 2011). The species is likely to have disappeared from the upper Cudgewa Creek catchment in Victoria, which flows into the Upper Murray River, after about 1920 (Trueman 2011). This trend appears to be consistent with records further downstream, within the Murray River and creeks near Burroweye and Towong, where recordings of Macquarie perch seem to decline until the 1930s (Trueman 2011). The exception seems to be Mannus Creek, where it appears a population of Macquarie perch have persisted and were rediscovered in early-2017 (Long 2017). Downstream on the Upper Murray River near Albury, the species was common in the late-1920s but underwent a dramatic decline shortly after that time (Trueman 2011). In general, very few historical records exist for native fish in the montane zone of the Upper Murray River (upstream of the Tom Groggin campground which is close to the New South Wales-Victoria border within the New South Wales’ Kosciuszko National Park) (Trueman 2011). Much of the Upper Murray River occurs within the slopes zone. Macquarie perch abundance has been estimated at the time of European settlement for the Upper Murray River catchment as: abundant in the slopes zone, and; common in both the upland and montane zones (Trueman 2011).

SRA1 and 2 recorded no Macquarie perch in surveys at 21 sites across the Upper Murray River catchment both in 2005 and 2008 (Davies et al., 2008; 2012). SRA rarity scores for the species in the catchment were: common in the slopes zone; occasional in the upland zone, and; rare in the montane zone (MDBA 2017).

The middle or Central Murray River catchment, stretching from Wentworth in the west (very near to the the confluence of the Murray and Darling rivers) to Albury-Wodonga in the east, is unusual for assessment of Macquarie perch abundance, as this part of the river is entirely zoned as lowland for purposes of Trueman’s 2011 analysis. Historical research indicates a consistent trend of the species’ decline in abundance occurring during the 1930s and becoming severely ‘depleted’ by the 1950s (Trueman 2011). The species had completely disappeared from most of the Central Murray River catchment by the 1970s (Trueman 2011). The stretch of river between Tocumwal eastwards to Yarrawonga was an exception where the species was common until about 1950, then declined in abundance until they had disappeared in this area by the end of the 1980s (Cadwallader 1977; Trueman 2011). The estimate of Macquarie perch abundance at the time of European settlement for the Central Murray River catchment were rated as: rare in the Murray River between Wentworth eastwards to the Wakool River confluence; common between the Wakool River confluence eastwards to Echuca (Campaspe River confluence); abundant between Echuca eastwards to Albury-Wodonga in these lowland zones of the Murray River (Trueman 2011). SRA1 and 2 recorded no Macquarie perch in surveys at 21 sites across the Central Murray River catchment both in 2005 and 2008 (Davies et al., 2008; 2012). SRA rarity scores for the species in the catchment were: rare in the lower zone (Wentworth eastwards to Murrumbidgee River confluence); occasional in the middle zone (Murrumbidgee River confluence eastwards to Hume Dam), and; rare in the Edwards-Wakool anabranch zone (MDBA 2017). Long term fish monitoring in the Murray River between Yarrawonga and Cobram between 1999–2017 has not detected the species in this reach (Lyon et al., 2014; ARI unpub. data, cited in ARI pers. comm., 2017).

For eastern Macquarie perch, which occurred in the Hawkesbury-Nepean, Georges and Shoalhaven catchments at the time of European settlement and for some time afterwards (Faulks et al., 2010; 2011; Pavlova et al., 2017a; 2017b), the species is still present in fragmented populations in the upper Hawkesbury-Nepean catchment, in tributaries of Lake Burragorang (the lake formed by Warragamba Dam)  and the Warragamba River and tributaries of the Nepean River (Knight 2010) and tributaries of the Colo River, which flows into the Hawkesbury River (Faulks et al., 2011). The natural population in the Shoalhaven River catchment declined rapidly during the late-1990s, genetic analysis of the an individual captured in the Kangaroo River was homozygous at 90 per cent of loci, which suggests that loss of genetic variation and individual inbreeding accompanied extinction of the endemic Shoalhaven lineage (Pavlova et al., 2017a). However, a translocated population remains in the Shoalhaven catchment in the Mongarlowe River derived from individuals from the Murray-Darling Basin (Faulks et al., 2010; 2011). The Mongarlowe River population has declined dramatically since it was first studied in the 1970s (Bishop 1979; Lintermans 2008). A translocated population persists in Cataract Reservoir near Bulli Tops on the Cataract River, a tributary of the upper Nepean River. This population is of Murray-Darling Basin origin and it appears that individuals from this Reservoir population have dispersed downstream where some interbreeding with the naturally occurring Hawkesbury-Nepean lineage is evident (Faulks et al., 2011; Pavlova et al., 2017a). There is no evidence of interbreeding within Cataract Reservoir (Pavlova et al., 2017a).

Victoria

For the Mitta Mitta River catchment, historical research indicates that for the majority of the catchment, Macquarie perch declined in abundance between in the 1930s and by the end of the World War II the species was rare in the catchment above the Larsens Creek confluence (before Lake Dartmouth was made) and by the 1950s had become scarce throughout the catchment and until the 1970s had contracted to the area of the Dart Creek/River confluence (also now swamped by Lake Dartmouth) and had become rare in many parts of the catchment (Trueman 2011). Soon after Lake Dartmouth was constructed and flooded in the 1970s, the population of Macquarie perch initially flourished becoming reasonably abundant and supporting a recreational fishery (Hunt et al., 2011; Trueman 2011). Below the Lake Dartmouth dam wall, Macquarie perch disappeared in the Mitta Mitta River within twelve years of its completion in 1979 (Koehn et al., 1995; Lugg & Copeland 2014). A decline in the species’ abundance then was observed for Lake Dartmouth between the mid-1980s–2000 (Douglas et al., 2002; Hunt et al., 2011). The estimate of Macquarie perch abundance at the time of European settlement for the Mitta Mitta River catchment were rated as: abundant from both the slopes zone and upland zones, and; common from the montane zone (Trueman 2011). Recreational fishing of the species is currently permitted in Lake Dartmouth, with a daily bag limit of one fish, but the Victorian Government has tightened regulations associated with catching the species by increasing the legal minimum length from 250 mm to 300 mm in 2000, and then to 350 mm in 2004 (Hunt et al., 2011, Vic DEDJTR 2015c). There have been recent indications that the Lake Dartmouth population is recovering following years of higher rainfall that have resulted in greater inflows to the lake between 2008–2013, leading to increased biological productivity in the impoundment (Tonkin et al., 2014). SRA1 and 2 recorded no Macquarie perch in surveys at 21 sites across the Mitta Mitta River catchment both in 2005 and 2008 (Davies et al., 2008; 2012). SRA rarity scores for the species in the catchment were: common in the slopes and upland zones, and; rare in the montane zone (MDBA 2017).

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