Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds) Instrument 2022 (Cth)
Commonwealth of Australia
Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999
Section 285
Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds) Instrument 2022
I, Sussan Ley, Minister for the Environment, pursuant to section 285 of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth), hereby jointly make a wildlife conservation plan with the Western Australia Minister for Environment, the Hon Reece Whitby MLA, the South Australia Minister for Environment and Water, the Hon David Speirs MP, the Queensland Minister for the Environment and the Great Barrier Reef, the Hon Meaghan Scanlon MP and the New South Wales Minister for Energy and Environment, the Hon Matthew Kean MP, for the following 76 listed migratory and marine species, entitled “Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds”.
Listed migratory and marine species
Wildlife conservation plan
Anous minutus Department of Agriculture, Water and the Anous stolidus Environment (2020) Wildlife Conservation Plan Aptenodytes patagonicus for Seabirds. Commonwealth of Australia Ardenna carneipes Ardenna grisea Ardenna pacifica Ardenna tenuirostris Bulweria bulwerii Calonectris leucomelas Chlidonias hybridus Chlidonias leucopterus Daption capense Eudyptes chrysocome Eudyptes chrysolophus Eudyptula minor Fregata ariel Fregata minor Fregetta tropica Garrodia nereis Gelochelidon nilotica Gygis alba Haliaeetus leucogaster Haliastur indus Hydrobates matsudairae Hydrobates monorhis Hydroprogne caspia Larus dominicanus Larus novaehollandiae Larus pacificus Lugensa brevirostris Morus serrator Oceanites oceanicus Onychoprion anaethetus Pachyptila belcheri Pachyptila crassirostris Pachyptila desolata
Pachyptila salvini Pachyptila turtur Pachyptila vittata Pandion haliaetus Pelagodroma marina Pelecanoides georgicus Pelecanoides urinatrix Pelecanus conspicillatus Phaethon lepturus Phaethon rubricauda Phalacrocorax fuscescens Procelsterna cerulea Pseudobulweria rostrata Pterodroma cervicalis Pterodroma inexpectata Pterodroma lessonii Pterodroma macroptera Pterodroma nigripennis Pterodroma solandri Puffinus assimilis Puffinus bulleri Puffinus gavia Puffinus huttoni Pygoscelis papua Stercorarius longicaudus Stercorarius maccormicki Stercorarius parasiticus Stercorarius pomarinus Sterna bengalensis Sterna dougallii Sterna fuscata Sterna hirundo Sterna paradisaea Sterna striata Sterna sumatrana Sternula albifrons Sula dactylatra Sula leucogaster Sula sula Thalasseus bergii
The wildlife conservation plan specified in the above paragraph will come into force on the day after the plan is registered on the Federal Register of Legislation.
Dated this 28th day of March 2022
Sussan Ley
Sussan Ley
Minister for the Environment (Commonwealth)
Dated this 10 day of November 2021
Matthew Kean
Matthew Kean
Minister for Energy and Environment (New South Wales)
Dated this 25 day of May 2021
David Speirs
David Speirs
Minister for Environment and Water (South Australia)
Dated this 8 day of March 2022
Meaghan Scanlon
Meaghan Scanlon
Minister for the Environment and Great Barrier Reef (Queensland)
Dated this 2 of February 2022
Reece Whitby
Reece Whitby
Minister for Environment (Western Australia)
There are over 100 species of seabird that occur naturally or regularly visit Australia
during the course of their lifecycle. Australia’s coastal and oceanic habitats, particularly
offshore islands and surrounding waters are critically important areas for seabirds
during the breeding and non-breeding season as places to breed, rest and feed.
For long-distance migratory species, these habitats also provide resources so birds
can build enough energy reserves to travel the long distance to complete their
annual migration.
Commonwealth listed marine and migratory seabird species that inhabit Australia receive national protection as a matter of national environmental significance under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). Under the EPBC Act, wildlife conservation plans can be prepared to provide for research and management actions necessary to support the survival of listed marine and migratory species. This mechanism also supports Australia’s domestic obligations under our current bilateral migratory bird agreements with the Governments of Japan, China and the Republic of Korea, as well as multi-lateral environment agreements including the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) and Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
The Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment has prepared a Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds in consultation with Commonwealth agencies, state and territory governments, local government, natural resource
management bodies, industry, research institutions, non-government organisations and other relevant stakeholders. The Plan aims to provide a national framework for the research and management of listed marine and migratory seabirds and to outline national activities to support the conservation of listed seabirds in Australia and beyond. The Plan includes a summary of Australia’s commitments under international conventions and agreements, and the identification of important habitats within Australia. This Plan can be used as an over-arching framework to develop sub-national or regional plans and should be used to ensure seabird conservation, research and management are integrated and remain focused on the long-term survival of seabirds and their habitats.
This is the first wildlife conservation plan developed under the EPBC Act for seabirds and the Department encourages the implementation of actions identified in the plan in partnership with all relevant stakeholders. The Plan will be in place for a period of ten years and will be reviewed in 2025. It is available for download from the Department’s website at Conservation Plan for Seabirds 1
The seabird diversity of Australia, its islands and external territories is remarkable. The majority of species feed in coastal or oceanic waters and many migrate beyond Australian jurisdiction to complete their lifecycle. For these species, efforts to conserve seabirds in one country can only be effective with the cooperation and complementary actions of all countries in which they occur, including the high seas. Globally, there is a growing urgency to conserve seabirds and minimise the threats to the habitats critical to their survival in the face of ever-increasing human impacts across the world (Croxall et al. 2012).
Responsibility for the conservation and management of seabirds in Australia lies jointly with the Commonwealth and, state and territory governments. Australia has statutory obligations to conserve EPBC Act listed seabird species within its jurisdiction and internationally through agreements such as the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS), the Agreement of the Conservation of Albatross and Petrels (ACAP) and the bilateral migratory bird agreements (JAMBA, CAMBA and ROKAMBA). Most Australian seabird breeding colonies are on islands within state or territory waters and are managed accordingly by the relevant authority. Greater coordination amongst government agencies, research institutions, conservation organisations, industry groups and community organisations will significantly improve the knowledge base and capacity for the management of seabirds in Australia.
Governments, industry and conservation groups including the Australian Antarctic Division, Parks Australia, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, CSIRO, Indigenous Land and Sea Rangers, BirdLife Australia and the Australasian Seabird Group, have undertaken some major projects relating to seabirds and their habitats. Population monitoring, island colony counts and research programs which have been operational for many years, have been successful due to the large number of scientists and volunteers that have contributed to these projects. There are a number of projects aimed at the conservation of marine and migratory listed seabirds in Australia which are primarily funded by the Australian Government, state and territory agencies, industry groups and philanthropic organisations.
Through the variety of research and volunteer programs that have been carried out, there is a strong baseline of information on seabirds throughout Australia. However, much remains unknown and it is important to sustain research and expand monitoring activities in order to detect significant changes in seabird populations. Whilst there is a strong network between many of the conservation groups who have an interest in seabirds, there may be many projects that would benefit from a coordinated system of communication and information exchange.
Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds 3
Introduction
This Plan seeks to facilitate a nationally coordinated effort to protect and conserve EPBC Act listed seabirds and provides an over-arching framework for their research and management. This Plan encourages a cross-sectorial effort to address threats to seabirds and their habitats. A prioritised research program, nationally coordinated monitoring program and the implementation of on-ground actions to alleviate threats are critical areas for immediate focus. The Plan also contains a compilation of seabird species accounts covering life history, distribution, population size and trends, conservation concerns, and recommended management actions. These profiles can be used by agencies, land managers and on-ground environmental organisations to inform species specific management priorities. Additional information on each of these species can be found on the Department’s SPRAT profiles, including information on the listing status of the species under relevant state or territory legislation (see Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds
Seabirds are a taxonomically varied group of nearly 350 bird species (around
3.5 per cent of all birds) that depend on the marine environment for at least part of their life cycle (BirdLife International 2019). By convention, seabirds are defined as species in the families Phaethontidae (Tropicbirds), Hydrobatidae (Northern Storm-petrels), Oceanitidae (Austral Storm-petrels), Diomedeidae (Albatrosses), Procellariidae (Shearwaters and petrels), Spheniscidae (Penguins), Fregatidae (Frigatebirds), Sulidae (Gannets and boobies), Pelecanidae (Pelicans), Stercorariidae (Skuas) and Laridae (Gulls and terns). While seabirds vary greatly in their lifestyle and habitats, behaviour and physiology, they often exhibit striking convergent evolution, as the same environmental challenges and feeding niches have resulted in similar adaptations.
In general, seabirds are long lived, have delayed breeding and have fewer young than other birds do. Most species nest in colonies, which can vary in size from a few dozen birds to millions. Many species undertake long migrations, crossing the equator or circumnavigating the Earth in some cases. They feed both at the ocean's surface and below it, and even feed on each other. Seabirds can be oceanic, coastal, or in some cases spend a part of the year away from the sea entirely.
Adaptation to the marine environment
Seabirds have evolved numerous adaptations to living on and feeding in the marine environment. The evolution of wing morphology of an individual species or family has been shaped by its ecological niche. Longer wings and low wing loading are typical of more oceanic species, while diving species have shorter wings (Gaston 2004). Species such as the Wandering Albatross (Diomedea exulans), which forage over large areas of ocean, have a reduced capacity for powered flight and are dependent on a type of gliding called dynamic soaring (where the wind deflected by waves provides lift) as well as slope soaring (Pennycuick 1982). Seabirds also almost always have webbed feet, to aid movement on the surface as well as assisting diving in some species.
The Procellariiformes are unusual among birds in having a strong sense of smell, which is used to find widely distributed food in a vast ocean (Lequette et al. 1989) and possibly to locate their colonies. Salt glands are used by seabirds to deal with the salt they ingest by drinking and feeding (particularly on crustaceans), and to help them osmoregulate (Harrison 1990). The excretions from these glands (which are positioned in the head of the birds, emerging from the nasal cavity) are almost pure sodium chloride.
Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds 5
Seabirds of Australia
Diet and foraging behaviour
Seabirds have evolved to exploit different food resources in the world's oceans, and to a great extent, their physiology and behaviour have been shaped by their diet (Springer et al 2018). These evolutionary forces have often caused species in different families and even orders to evolve similar strategies and adaptations to the same problems, leading to remarkable convergent evolution, such as that between Northern Hemisphere auks and Southern Hemisphere penguins.
There are four basic feeding strategies, or ecological guilds, for feeding at sea: surface feeding, pursuit diving, plunge diving and kleptoparasitism; within these guilds there are multiple variations on the theme.
Many seabirds feed on the ocean's surface, as the action of marine currents often concentrates food such as krill, forage fish, squid or other prey items within reach of a dipped head. Surface feeders that swim often have unique bills adapted for their specific prey. Prions have special bills with filters called lamellae to filter out plankton from water (Brooke 2004), and many albatrosses and petrels have hooked bills to snatch fast-moving prey. Gulls have more generalised bills that reflect their more opportunistic lifestyle.
Pursuit diving exerts greater pressures (both evolutionary and physiological) on seabirds. Propulsion underwater can be provided by wings (as used by penguins, diving petrels and some other species of petrel) or feet (as used by cormorants). Many shearwaters are intermediate between the two, having longer wings than typical wing-propelled divers but heavier wing loadings than the other surface-feeding procellariids, leaving them capable of diving to considerable depths while still being efficient long-distance travellers (Shaffer et al. 2006). This is the dominant guild in polar and subpolar environments, as it is energetically inefficient in warmer waters. With their poor flying ability, many wing-propelled pursuit divers are more limited in their foraging range than other guilds, especially during the breeding season when young need regular feeding.
Gannets, boobies, tropicbirds and some terns engage in plunge diving, taking fast moving prey by diving into the water from flight. Plunge diving allows birds to use the energy from the momentum of the dive to combat natural buoyancy (caused by air trapped in plumage) (Ropert-Coudert et al. 2004), and thus uses less energy than the dedicated pursuit divers, allowing them to utilise more widely distributed food resources, for example, less productive tropical areas. Some plunge divers (as well as some surface feeders) are dependent on dolphins and tuna to push shoaling fish up towards the surface (Au et al. 1986).
Kleptoparasites are seabirds that steal food of other seabirds. Most famously, frigatebirds and skuas engage in this behaviour, although gulls, terns and other species will steal food opportunistically (Schreiber and Burger 2002). The nocturnal nesting behaviour of some seabirds has been interpreted as arising due to pressure from this aerial piracy (Gaston and Dechesne 1986). Kleptoparasitism is not thought to play a significant part of the diet of any species but is a supplement to food obtained by hunting (Schreiber and Burger 2002). A study of Great Frigatebirds stealing from Masked Boobies estimated that the frigatebirds could at most obtain 40 per cent of the food they needed, and on average obtained only 5 per cent (Vickery and Brooke 1994).
6 Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds
Seabirds of Australia
Life history
Seabirds' life histories are largely different from those of land birds. In general, they are K-selected, that is, population numbers fluctuate at or near the carrying capacity of the environment in which they inhabit. K-selected species generally have a longer lifespan (up to 60 years), delay breeding for longer (for up to 10 years) and invest more effort into fewer young (Robertson 1993; Schreiber and Burger 2002). Most seabird species will only have one clutch a year, unless they lose the first, and many species (like the procellariids and sulids), only one egg a year (Schreiber and Burger 2002; Brooke 2004).
Care of young is protracted, extending for as long as six months, among the longest for birds. For example, frigatebirds have long periods of parental care with each chick fledging after four to six months and continued parental investment for up to 14 months (Metz and Schreiber 2002). Due to the extended period of care, breeding occurs every two years rather than annually for some species. This life-history strategy has likely evolved both in response to the challenges of living at sea (collecting widely scattered prey items), the frequency of breeding failures due to unfavourable marine conditions, and the relative lack of predation compared to that of land-living birds (Schreiber and Burger 2002).
Because of the greater investment in raising the young and because foraging for food may occur far from the nest site, both parents participate in caring for the young, and pairs are typically at least seasonally monogamous. Many species, such as gulls, shearwaters and penguins, retain the same mate for several seasons, and many petrel species can mate for life (Brooke 2004). Albatrosses and procellariids, which can mate for life, take many years to form a pair bond before they breed (Pickering and Berrow 2001; Brooke 2004).
Breeding
Seabird breeding colonies are highly variable. Individual nesting sites can be widely spaced, as in an albatross colony, or densely packed as with a tern colony. In most seabird colonies, several different species will nest on the same site, often exhibiting some niche separation. Seabirds can nest in trees or shrubs (if any are available), on the ground (with or without nests), on cliffs, in burrows under the ground and in rocky crevices. Competition can be strong both within species and between species, with aggressive species such as Sooty Terns pushing less-dominant species out of the most desirable nesting spaces (Schreiber et al. 2002). The Great-winged Petrel (Pterodroma macroptera) nests during the winter to avoid competition with the more aggressive species like the Flesh-footed Shearwater (Ardenna carneipes) in south-west Western Australia. When the seasons overlap, Flesh-footed Shearwaters will share burrows with young Great-winged Petrels in order to use their burrows for summer nesting (Serventy et al. 1971).
Many seabirds show remarkable site fidelity, returning to the same burrow, nest or site for many years, and they will defend that site from rivals with great vigour (Schreiber and Burger 2002). This behaviour increases breeding success, provides a place for returning mates to reunite, and reduces the costs of prospecting for a new site (Bried et al. 2003). Young adults breeding for the first time usually return to their natal colony, and often nest close to where they hatched. This tendency, known as philopatry, is so strong that a study of Laysan Albatrosses (Phoebastria immutabilis) found that the average distance between hatching site and the site where a bird established its own territory was 22 m (Fisher 1976). For some species, once these sites are lost, there are limited options for these species to “find” alternative locations and habitat. Given the gaps in seabird ecology, loss of these sites may pose a risk to certain seabird populations.
Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds 7
Seabirds of Australia
Colonies are usually situated on islands, cliffs or headlands, which land mammals have difficulty accessing (Moors and Atkinson 1984). This is thought to provide protection to seabirds, which are often very clumsy on land. Colonies of breeding seabirds will also take advantage of artificial structures, breakwaters and offshore platforms. Breeding in colonies often arises in types of birds that do not defend feeding territories; this may be a reason why it arises more frequently in seabirds (Schreiber and Burger 2002). There are other possible advantages: colonies may act as information centres, where seabirds returning to the sea to forage can find out where prey is by studying returning individuals of the same species. There are disadvantages to colonial life, particularly the spread of disease and ectoparasites. Colonies also attract the attention of predators, principally other birds, and many species attend their colonies nocturnally to avoid predation (Keitt et al. 2004).
Migration
Like many birds, seabirds often migrate after the breeding season. Of these, the migration taken by the Arctic Tern (Sterna paradisaea) is the farthest of any
bird, crossing the equator in order to spend the Austral summer in Antarctica
(Egevang et al. 2010; Fijim et al. 2013). Other species also undertake trans-equatorial trips, both from the north to the south, and from south to north. The Sooty Shearwater (Ardenna grisea) undertakes an annual migration cycle that rivals that of the Arctic Tern; birds that nest in New Zealand and Chile spend the northern summer feeding in the North Pacific Ocean off Japan, Alaska and California, an annual round trip of 64,000 km (Shaffer et al. 2006).
Other species migrate shorter distances away from the breeding sites, their distribution at sea determined by the availability of food. If oceanic conditions are unsuitable, seabirds will immigrate to more productive areas, sometimes permanently if the bird is young (Oro et al. 2004). After fledging, juvenile birds often disperse further than adults, and to different areas, so are commonly sighted far from a species' normal range. Some species, such as some of the storm petrels, diving petrels and cormorants, rarely disperse at all, staying near their breeding colonies year-round.
Biologically important areas for seabirds in Australia
Australian Marine Parks (Commonwealth reserves proclaimed under the EPBC Act in 2007 and 2013) are located in Commonwealth waters that start at the outer edge of state and territory waters, generally three nautical miles (approximately 5.5 kilometres) from the shore, and extend to the outer boundary of Australia’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), 200 nautical miles (approximately 370 kilometres) from the shore. These marine parks have been established for the protection and conservation of biodiversity and other natural, cultural and heritage values of the parks. They contain biologically important areas for a range of protected seabird species, and management of these parks can contribute to the protection of these species, or the ecological processes that support them.
8 Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds
Seabirds of Australia
Biologically important areas (BIAs) are areas that are particularly important for the conservation of the protected species and where aggregations of individuals display biologically important behaviour such as breeding, foraging, resting or migration.
BIAs were originally identified for some (but not all) seabirds through a rigorous and robust process as part of the Commonwealth Bioregional Planning Process and are referenced in Commonwealth Marine Bioregional Plans. The selection of BIAs for species was informed by the availability of scientific information, the conservation status of listed species and the importance of the region for the species. They represent areas where a specific behaviour is known to occur. The absence of an identified BIA does not mean that an area is not important habitat, just that it was not known at the time of assessment. This is because BIA maps reflect the best available information at the time of publication.
Specifically, BIAs are based on the following:
A. Behaviour (feeding, nesting, migration) occurs in the area;
B. Certainty of occurrence (only areas of ‘known’ or ‘likely’ occurrence are considered);
C. The level to which species use the BIA;
D. The season(s) during which species use the BIA; and
E. Source(s) of the information upon which the BIA is based.
Biologically important areas have been identified for a number of listed seabirds that occur in Commonwealth marine areas. Behaviours used to define biologically important areas for seabirds include breeding areas with a foraging buffer, and roosting habitats.
The BIA maps are a dynamic tool which allow for up-to-date information to be stored and referenced in a geospatial environment, building on information used to inform the wildlife conservation plan.
The range of species for which biologically important areas are identified will continue to expand as reliable spatial and scientific information becomes available. Biologically important areas are included in the Department’s Conservation Values Atlas ( align="right">Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds 9
Marine species
Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Australia has rights and responsibilities over 16 million square kilometres of ocean – more than twice the area of the Australian continent. Within this area live thousands of marine species, some of which are unique to Australia and all of which contribute to making Australia the most biodiverse rich country in our region.
The Australian Government uses the EPBC Act to protect and manage threatened, migratory and marine species in the marine environment. Marine species are listed under the EBPC Act and includes sea snakes, seals, crocodiles, Dugong (Dugong dugon), marine turtles and all birds that occur naturally in Commonwealth marine areas.
Once listed as a marine species under the EPBC Act, it becomes an offence to kill, injure, take, trade, keep or move of any listed marine species in or on a Commonwealth area.
The marine species list established under the EPBC Act is available at: species
The EPBC Act is the Australian Government’s key piece of environmental legislation. Under the EPBC Act, actions that have, or are likely to have, a significant impact on nationally protected matters require approval from the Australian Government Minister for the Environment. One of these matters protected by the Act is migratory species; specifically those migratory species listed under the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (also known as the CMS or the Bonn Convention; and bilateral migratory bird agreements with Japan (JAMBA), China (CAMBA) and the Republic of Korea (ROKAMBA).
Australia’s list of migratory species is established under Section 209 of the EPBC Act and is available at: 211(A to E) of the EPBC Act prohibits the killing, injuring, taking, trading, keeping or moving of any migratory species in or on a Commonwealth area, although certain exemptions are allowed for in Section 212. For places outside of Commonwealth areas, the EPBC Act prevents actions (Section 140) or approvals under Strategic Assessments (Section 146L) that are inconsistent with Australia’s migratory species’ obligations under the CMS, JAMBA, CAMBA or ROKAMBA.
10 Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds
Legal framework
Under the CMS, species are listed on Appendix I or Appendix II (or both), with Appendix I species recognised as endangered. Parties to the Convention that are Range States of a migratory species commit to prohibiting the taking of animals listed in Appendix I, and endeavour:
to conserve and, where feasible and appropriate, restore those habitats of the species which are of importance in removing the species from danger of extinction;
to prevent, remove, compensate for or minimize, as appropriate, the adverse effects of activities or obstacles that seriously impede or prevent the migration of the species; and
to the extent feasible and appropriate, prevent, reduce or control factors that are endangering or are likely to further endanger the species, including strictly controlling the introduction of, or controlling or eliminating, already introduced exotic species.
Appendix II species are those that have an unfavourable conservation status and which require international agreements for their conservation and management, as well as those that would significantly benefit from the international cooperation that could be achieved by an international agreement.
Migratory species included in either Appendix can also benefit from the development of Concerted Actions. These range from field research and conservation projects to the establishment of technical and institutional frameworks for action. International Single Species Action Plans are an important instrument to promote and coordinate activities that seek to protect and restore habitat, mitigate obstacles to migration and other factors that might endanger species.
Signatories to JAMBA, CAMBA and ROKAMBA are committed to taking appropriate measures to preserve and enhance the environment of migratory birds, in particular, by seeking means to prevent damage to such birds and their environment.
These agreements also commit the governments to exchange research data and publications, to encourage formulation of joint research programs, and to encourage the conservation of migratory birds.
Actions that have or are likely to have, a significant impact on a listed migratory species (or other protected matter) must be referred to the Department for a decision on whether further assessment and approval is needed under the EPBC Act before an action can be undertaken.
An action is likely to have a significant impact on a migratory species if there is a real chance or possibility that it will:
substantially modify (including by fragmenting, altering fire regimes, altering nutrient cycles or altering hydrological cycles), destroy or isolate an area of important habitat for migratory species;
result in an invasive species that is harmful to the migratory species becoming established in an area of important habitat for the migratory species; or
seriously disrupt the lifecycle (breeding, feeding, migration or resting behaviour) of an ecologically significant proportion of the population of a migratory species.
Further information of significant impact criteria can be found in the EPBC Act Policy Statement 1.1 Significant Impact Guidelines – Matters of National Environmental Significance.
Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds 11
Legal framework
Agreement on the Conservation of Albatross and Petrels
The Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels (ACAP) is a legally binding international treaty which entered into force on 1 February 2004. It was established in order to halt the alarming decline of seabird populations in the Southern Hemisphere, particularly albatrosses and petrels. Albatrosses and petrels are threatened by introduced species on their breeding islands, pollution, and being taken as bycatch in commercial and artisanal fisheries using a range of different gear. The agreement requires that measures be taken by signatory governments to reduce bycatch; protect breeding colonies; and control and remove introduced species from breeding sites, especially on islands.
Currently, ACAP protects all the world's albatross species, seven Southern Hemisphere petrel and two shearwater species. The agreement demonstrates an increasing international commitment to protect albatrosses and petrels.
ACAP helps countries to implement species action plans, control the expansion of non-native predators, introduce measures to reduce bycatch of seabirds, and support research in the effective conservation of albatrosses and petrels. The agreement has published ACAP Species Assessments, booklets, mitigation factsheets, and a number of ACAP Conservation Guidelines, including for biosecurity; eradication of introduced mammals; translocation; and census and survey methods. One of the agreement's main activities is to provide expert advice on seabird bycatch mitigation to fisheries managers, both in domestic and high seas fisheries. Further information about ACAP can be found here: the CMS, ACAP, JAMBA, CAMBA and ROKAMBA provide mechanisms for pursuing conservation outcomes for migratory birds, they do not encompass all seabirds and are binding on a limited number of countries. As Australia became increasingly concerned about the conservation status of species, additional mechanisms have been developed for multilateral cooperation on biodiversity conservation globally and throughout the region.
Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) is an international treaty that was adopted at the Conference on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources which met at Canberra, Australia, 7–20 May 1980. The convention’s objective is the conservation of Antarctic marine living resources where conservation includes sustainable harvesting.
The treaty is a multilateral response to concerns that unregulated increases in krill catches in the Southern Ocean could be detrimental for Antarctic marine ecosystems particularly for seabirds, seals, whales and fish that depend on krill for food. It takes whole ecosystem and precautionary approaches to management.
Whilst this wildlife conservation plan does not include Australian Antarctic Territory restricted species, CCAMLR is still a relevant legal framework related to the
conservation of seabirds in the Southern Ocean.
12 Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds
Legal framework
CCAMLR applies to all Antarctic populations of finfish, molluscs, crustacean and seabirds found south of the Antarctic Convergence, however, there are some species which do move beyond the Convergence to Australian waters which may rely on Antarctic resources, additionally there are some complementary CCAMLR measures around international actions to reduce the incidental mortality of seabirds arising from fishing. Further information on the Convention is available here: on Biological Diversity
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was inspired by the world community's growing commitment to sustainable development. It represents a step forward in the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.
Australia is one of 196 Parties to CBD who are committed to implementing provisions of the Convention through National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAP). NBSAPs are the principal instruments for implementing the Convention at the national level (Article 6). The Convention requires countries to prepare a national biodiversity strategy (or equivalent instrument) and to ensure that this strategy is mainstreamed into the planning and activities of all those sectors whose activities can have an impact (positive and negative) on biodiversity. Further information on Australia’s biodiversity strategy is available here: Convention on Wetlands
Australia is a signatory to the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (see The Ramsar Convention, as it is commonly known, is an intergovernmental treaty dedicated to the conservation and ‘wise use’ of wetlands.
The Ramsar Convention focuses on conservation of important habitats rather than species. Parties are committed to identifying wetlands that qualify as internationally significant against a set of criteria, nominating these wetlands to the List of Wetlands of International Importance (the Ramsar List) and ensuring the maintenance of the ecological character of each listed Ramsar site.
As at June 2020, Australia has 66 Wetlands of International Importance that cover a total of approximately 8.1 million hectares. Many of Australia’s Ramsar sites were nominated and listed using waterbird-based criteria, and in some of these cases seabirds are a major component of the waterbird numbers (e.g. Ramsar sites in the Coral Sea Marine Park, Ashmore Reef Marine Park and Pulu Keeling National Park). Some Ramsar sites that may not have been specifically listed for their waterbird-related values however contain critical components that are used by waterbirds. This includes use as migratory and localised feeding or roosting areas.
Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds 13
Legal framework
East Asian—Australasian Flyway Partnership
The Partnership for the Conservation of Migratory Waterbirds and the Sustainable Use of their Habitats in the East Asian–Australasian Flyway (East Asian— Australasian Flyway Partnership (EAAFP)) was launched on 6 November 2006. A Ramsar regional initiative, the partnership is an informal and voluntary collaboration of effort focusing on protecting migratory waterbirds, their habitat and the livelihoods of people dependant on them.
The EAAF is one of nine major migratory waterbird flyways around the globe. It extends from within the Arctic Circle in Russia and Alaska, southwards through East and South-east Asia, to Australia and New Zealand in the south, encompassing 22 countries. Migratory waterbirds share this flyway with 45 per cent of the world’s human population. The EAAF is home to over 50 million migratory waterbirds—including shorebirds, Anatidae (ducks, geese and swans), seabirds and cranes—from 207 species, including 33 globally threatened and 13 near threatened species.
Flyway partners include countries, intergovernmental agencies, international non-government organisations and the international business sector. A cornerstone of the partnership is the establishment of a network of internationally important sites for migratory waterbirds throughout the EAAF. The partnership operates via working groups and task forces, including the Seabird Working Group. More information about the Partnership is available at: Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds
The Plan includes 73 species of seabird that occur or regularly visit Australia and its EEZ. The Plan does not include Australian Antarctic Territory restricted species, vagrant seabirds, ACAP-listed albatrosses and petrels or those species that are listed as threatened under the EPBC Act. Threatened species receive separate, approved conservation advice and, in some cases, a recovery plan which sets out what should be done to stop the decline and support the recovery of the species.
Based on expert opinion, three raptor species – White-bellied Sea-eagle (Haliaeetus leucogaster), Brahminy Kite (Haliastur indus) and Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) have also been included in this Plan as they all rely on the marine environment to complete their lifecycle and would all benefit from a national framework to coordinate research and management actions.
If, during the life of this Plan, a seabird species listed in Table 1 becomes a listed threatened species under the EPBC Act, the plan will cease to apply to that species. In the situation where a threatened seabird species is delisted, it will be eligible to be included in this plan as long as the species is also listed as migratory, and/or marine under the EPBC Act. If any seabird species that is currently considered a vagrant were to be recorded on a regular basis, monitoring programmes for the species should be supported to determine whether inclusion under the EPBC Act is appropriate.
Additional information on each of these species can be found on the Department’s SPRAT profiles, including information on the listing status of the species under relevant state or territory legislation (see Conservation Plan for Seabirds 15
Species covered under the wildlife conservation plan
continued ...
16 Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds
Species covered under the wildlife conservation plan
continued ...
Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds 17
Species covered under the wildlife conservation plan
18 Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds
In Australia, threats to seabird populations can generally be attributed to one of four broad categories: biological, climate, resource use or chemical. Key threats to the survival of Australian seabirds are identified in this section. The list is not exhaustive but identifies the main threats that are likely to affect seabird populations adversely.
Habitat loss
Coastal development
Development pressures affect many species as human populations grow and we expand our coastal and urban footprint. Coastal development such as housing estates, roads, ports, windfarms and industrial areas can reduce or eliminate areas for seabirds to breed and forage. Tourism or industry developments on offshore islands can also lead to a reduction of the area available for nesting seabirds like terns and shearwaters. Secondary impacts of coastal and urban development can include increased disturbance, roaming domestic pets, light pollution and energy infrastructure (covered below).
The settlement of offshore islands, such as the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, has led to a decline in the distribution of breeding seabirds. Before human occupation of the islands in the 19th century, seabirds bred on all Cocos (Keeling) atolls. Now the only significant seabird breeding colonies are restricted to Pulu Keeling National Park. The site regularly supports more than 30,000 pairs of Red-footed Booby; 15,000 Common Noddy and 3,000 Great and Lesser Frigatebirds.
Loss of areas that support large numbers of seabirds can cause disproportionate declines in seabird populations, as displaced birds are unable to find suitable replacement habitat. Similarly, incremental loss of smaller areas affects the broader conservation of habitat availability. In Australia, loss of important habitat reduces availability of foraging and roosting areas, affecting the ability of birds to build up energy stores necessary for successful migration and breeding. Some areas are also important year-round for juvenile birds, with loss of these habitats affecting future breeding populations of these species.
Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds 19
Threats
Habitat may be lost due to a variety of activities that make the habitat unavailable to seabirds. These may include direct loss through clearing, inundation, infilling or draining (for example, for buildings or marine services such as harbours, marinas, ports or oil terminals) or indirect loss through changes to hydrology, water quality or vegetation structural changes near breeding and roosting areas (for example increased vegetation cover or encroachment of buildings).
When assessing a development proposal, all direct and indirect impacts that have, will have, or are likely to occur on a protected matter as a result of the action must be considered.
Habitat modification
Seabirds are sensitive to subtle changes to their habitat. In particular, many have specialised feeding techniques making them susceptible to slight changes in prey availability or to their foraging environments. An activity that reduces the ability of seabirds to use an area for breeding, roosting or foraging, or reduces the availability of food, degrades habitat may have adverse impacts on the population. These impacts include (among others):
alteration of nesting trees, ground substrate or burrows, sand spits used for roosting or inshore feeding areas such as seagrass beds, estuaries and coastal wetlands;
substantial loss of marine or estuarine vegetation which is likely to alter the dynamic equilibrium of sediment banks and mudflats;
invasion of coastal weeds;
livestock (i.e. trampling burrows) and fire management at nesting areas, including on islands;
water pollution and changes to the water regime, including the construction of dams and water management;
artificial changes to hydrological regimes that affect the productivity of the feeding environment (for example, changes in water depth); and
exposure of acid sulphate soils changing the chemical balance of the area.
20 Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds
Threats
Climate variability and change
Climate change
Most extreme climatic events are beyond our immediate control, but it is important to monitor their effects on seabirds, particularly in the long term, in order to understand the background of natural influences against which to judge anthropogenic influences (Ross et al. 1996). The implications of extreme climatic events for Australian and Southern Hemisphere seabirds have been described by Chambers et al. (2011, 2013, 2014) and by Rodriguez et al. (2019) for petrels and shearwaters.
Climate change is a threat that impacts many marine organisms including seabirds. The 'Loss of climatic habitat caused by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases' has been declared a Key Threatening Process under the EPBC Act. The threat is described as reductions in the bioclimatic range within which a species or ecological community exists due to emissions induced by human activities of greenhouse gases. The listing of this threat recognises that it is occurring at a continental scale. Components of the process include: temperature rise; changes in rainfall patterns; changes to the El Niño Southern Oscillation; and sea level rise. Consequences to seabirds could include negative impacts from an increase in extreme weather events, reduced or changed prey abundance and distribution, and decrease in nesting habitat.
Changes to marine ecosystems have been linked to strengthening warm currents and ocean warming (Ridgway 2007; Steinacher et al. 2010; Wu et al. 2012). In Australia, marine productivity has decreased as a result of the strengthening East Australian Current and warming waters (Ridgway 2007, Wu et al. 2012) which is likely to affect seabirds (e.g. foraging impacts and distribution changes (Carroll et al. 2016; Gorta et al. 2019)). For example, high seabird diversity in the Tasman Sea is subject to increasing rates of ocean warming and decreases in productivity which is likely to adversely impact species in that region (Mott and Clarke 2018).
Several seabird species have been identified as being at high risk from exposure to climate change and sensitive to climate change (Garnett and Franklin 2014). These species include: White-bellied Storm-petrel (Tasman Sea), Wedge-tailed Shearwater, Little Shearwater (Tasman Sea), Soft-plumaged Petrel, White-necked Petrel, Kermadec Petrel and Masked Booby (Tasman Sea). Many other seabirds listed by Garnett and Franklin (2014) are sensitive to climate change and their exposure to climate change varies. Understanding the impacts of climate change on these species, and the management response, will vary. The impact of climate change on Australian’s seabirds requires further research that will inform actions that inform adaptation and resilience.
Projected sea level rises are likely to adversely affect beach-nesting seabirds such as terns and noddies in the short term, followed by ground nesting seabirds like gulls, boobies and burrowing species such as penguins, shearwaters and petrels on low lying coastal areas, islands and cays.
A reduction in the emissions of greenhouse gases requires an internationally coordinated effort. Australia is a signatory to relevant international agreements, and has made a commitment to limit, and reduce, greenhouse gas emissions. In addition, the states and territories are pursuing additional opportunities to abate greenhouse gas emissions in a cost-effective and environmentally sensitive manner.
Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds 21
Threats
El Niño Southern Oscillation
Long-term climatic cycles caused by El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events can have profound effects on seabird colonies and breeding success (Schreiber and Burger 2002; Surman and Nicholson 2009; Chambers et al. 2013). For example, northward irruption of Southern Ocean species and subsequent mortalities are a feature of strong ENSO events. Oceanographic parameters play an important role in determining the distribution of many pelagic seabird species. The position of the front of the East Australian Current, the Subantarctic Convergence and the Leeuwin Current are all major cyclical features affecting marine productivity and seabird distributions in Australia.
Generally, effects of ENSO events on seabirds are seen first in the central Pacific where they develop and are the most severe, but parallel oceanographic and atmospheric changes occur in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans (Schreiber and Burger 2002). For example, during ENSO events, when the flow of the Leeuwin Current flow is weaker and the Southern Oscillation Index is low, reproductive effort and output was severely reduced for Lesser Noddy (Anous tenuirostris) and Common Noddy (A. stolidus) breeding at the Houtman Abrolhos, Western Australia (Surman and Nicholson 2009). The conditions appeared to result in low prey availability, which delayed the commencement of seabird breeding by up to two months and caused breeding failures (Surman and Nicholson 2009).
La Niña events can also impact seabirds. Cannell et al. (2012) observed negative impacts on breeding success and fledging mass of Little Penguin (Eudyptula minor) in Western Australia.
Storms and cyclones
Small populations such as those of White-tailed Tropicbird (Phaethon lepturus), Kermadec Petrel (Pterodroma neglecta) and Little Tern (Sternula albifrons) are vulnerable to stochastic events such as storms and cyclones. Storms and cyclones have the potential to have serious effects on the arrival points, nesting substrate, vegetation and wildlife on remote seabird breeding islands, in addition to impacting seabirds directly at sea. Such natural factors can place additional pressures on seabird populations already adversely affected by anthropogenic influences. However, stochastic events such as storms and cyclones are beyond the control of management authorities and have not been addressed for the species in this Plan.
Geological processes
Volcanism
Active volcanoes generally occur close to the major tectonic plate boundaries. They are rare in Australia because there are no plate boundaries on this continent. However, there are two active volcanoes located 4,000 kilometres south west of Perth in the Australian Antarctic Territory on Heard Island and the nearby McDonald Islands.
Mawson Peak, on Heard Island has erupted several times in the last decade and remains active. The volcano on McDonald Island, after being dormant for 75,000 years, became active in 1992 and has erupted several times since, the most recent in 2005. It is estimated that volcanic activity displaced more than 1 million pairs of Macaroni Penguins (Eudyptes chrysolophus) on McDonald Island after the 1992 eruptions, though satellite images show unidentified penguins that may be recolonising the area (Crossin et al. 2013).
22 Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds
Threats
The other active volcanoes nearest Australia are in Papua New Guinea, New Zealand, South Pacific, Indonesia and the Philippines. Gas-rich sticky magmas dominate the Asia Pacific, making composite volcanoes and calderas the most common varieties in the region. These types of volcanoes threaten lives, property, agricultural lands and livelihoods throughout south-east Asia and the Australian region. While volcanoes can impact seabird colonies from time-to-time by removing suitable nesting habitat, they can also create new habitat which is colonised over time as conditions change and improve.
Earthquake, tsunami and landslips
Earthquakes are the vibrations caused by rocks breaking under stress. The underground surface along which the rock breaks and moves is called a fault plane. Apart from causing shaking, earthquakes of magnitude 4.0 or greater can also trigger landslides, which can cause casualties. The larger the magnitude of the earthquake, the bigger the area over which landslides may occur. Undersea earthquakes can cause a tsunami, or a series of waves which can cross an ocean and cause extensive damage to coastal regions and nearshore seabird populations (Viera et al. 2006; Reynolds et al. 2015).
In areas underlain by water-saturated sediments, large earthquakes, usually magnitude 6.0 or greater, may cause liquefaction. The shaking causes the wet sediment to become quicksand and flow. Subsidence from this can cause buildings to topple, and the
sediment might erupt at the surface from craters and fountains.
Landslips caused by earthquakes or heavy rainfall, can impact habitat used by seabirds. For example, in 2016, a landslip caused by a 7.5 magnitude earthquake in New Zealand significantly impacted the breeding colony of the globally endangered Hutton’s Shearwater (Puffinus huttoni). Hutton’s Shearwaters are small seabirds endemic to New Zealand that breed only in the Seaward Kaikōura Ranges. They breed at two sites about 8 kilometres inland – Kowhai Stream and Shearwater Stream - at altitudes between 1200-1800 metres. They make burrows in loose soil amongst tussocks, where they spend nearly six months raising their chicks. After the earthquake struck, it was thought that up to 25 per cent of the population may have been crushed by the landslide. Surveys following the earthquake suggested that an estimated 20–30 per cent loss of breeding burrows had occurred but adults had returned to breed.
Invasive species
Invasive species are one of the primary threats to seabirds around the globe (Baker et al. 2002; Jones et al. 2008; Croxall et al. 2012). Mammals such as cats (Felis catus), rodents (Rattus spp.), European Red Fox, dogs (Canis familiaris) and pigs (Sus scrofa) predate adults, chicks and eggs and have caused localised extinctions. Goats (Capra hircus), cattle (Bos spp.) and rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) alter breeding areas making them unsuitable for breeding or reducing breeding success. On Bird Island, Seychelles, the invasion of Yellow Crazy Ants (Anoplolepis gracilipes) led to an estimated 60,000 pairs of Sooty Tern (Onchoprion fuscatus), which nest in colonies on the ground, being displaced from their nesting sites and also caused the death of White Tern (Gygis alba) chicks (Feare 1999). Yellow Crazy Ants may also take over nesting sites of known tree-hollow nesting birds and the constant acid spraying behaviour of crazy ants causes injuries to seabird chicks. The Yellow Crazy Ant has been identified as a threat to breeding seabirds and other biological assets on Christmas Island. Control efforts are underway to reduce the impacts on wildlife including baiting and biological control.
The solution seems simple – eradication of invasive species – but the implementation of such programs is logistically difficult and expensive.
Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds 23
Threats
One of Australia’s most successful programs to eradicate invasive species from an island was the Macquarie Island Pest Eradication Project. Since its discovery, a number of invasive invertebrates, mammal and bird species had been introduced to Macquarie Island. Some have had serious impacts on the island's native flora and fauna. Horses (Equus caballus), donkeys (E. asinus), pigs, cattle, goats, dogs and sheep (Ovis aries) were the first to be removed or die out naturally, and between 1989 and 2000, Weka (Gallirallus australis) and cats were eradicated. A major project to remove the last remaining mammal species - rabbits, Black Rats (Rattus rattus) and House Mice (Mus musculus) was undertaken between 2007 and 2014 thanks to a joint commitment of $24.7 million by the Australian and Tasmanian Governments to fund the eradication project. Aerial baiting of the entire island was completed in July 2011, followed by intensive monitoring by hunters and highly trained detection dogs, to detect and dispatch any surviving individuals. In April 2014, after nearly three years of monitoring with no sign of surviving individual rabbits, rats or mice, the project was declared a success. With the removal of rabbits and the resulting intensive grazing pressure, the island's vegetation is rapidly rebounding. Seabirds, which had suffered predation of eggs and chicks by rats, are also returning in numerous areas.
Another conservation success due to an island eradication program is the recovery of the threatened Gould’s Petrel (Pterodroma leucoptera) on NSW’s Cabbage Tree Island. In 1989 it was the sole Australian breeding site with just 250 breeding pairs. Adults were being killed by native Pied Currawongs (Strepera graculina) because rabbits had eaten out the understorey. Chicks were also becoming entangled in the sticky fruits of Pisonia trees (Pisonia umbellifera). Since eradication of rabbits, the removal of Pisonia trees, and establishment of additional breeding populations on other islands, numbers are continuing to grow.
Australian seabird islands facing invasive species issues include Ashmore Reef, Norfolk Island, Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Island. These important seabird islands may benefit from pest eradication programs, provided the impacts of these invasive species and role with ecosystems is understood.
Control of pest plants on offshore islands can be challenging, particularly where freshwater is scarce, and carting of water (required for mixing herbicide) to islands is problematic. Integrated methods of spraying, burning and revegetating have proved effective on some New South Wales islands. Research and field trials into more effective control methods for weeds that impact seabird islands are a worthwhile priority, particularly species like Tree Mallow (Malva arborea) which require seasonal slashing.
Some weed species may provide important habitat, or be stabilising beaches, dunes or sand islands, and weed control around seabird colonies must be carefully planned. Species such as Little Penguin burrow under woody weeds, such as Boxthorn, and weed removal can alter burrow conditions like humidity or temperature. Removal of native vegetation and weeds may result in erosion that impacts available habitat, or in some cases, total loss of sand spits islands.
24 Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds
Threats
Native wildlife
The influence of native species on the breeding success of seabirds should not be over-looked. Prior to the Macquarie Island Pest Eradication Project, it was believed that the population of Brown Skuas (Stercorarius antarcticus) on the island were being kept artificially high as a result of the availability of introduced rabbits as prey (Ross et al. 1996). Following the eradication of introduced rabbits, there was increased predation pressure by Brown Skua on native seabird colonies (i.e. prey switching from rabbits to seabirds).
Silver Gulls (Chroicocephalus novaehollandiae) can pose a threat to seabirds, particularly around tourist developments and human refuse (Smith 1991, 1992; Egan and Smith 1994). Kelp and Silver Gulls are known to raid tern colonies for eggs and young chicks and in large numbers have the ability to inflict a heavy toll on nesting seabirds (Serventy et al 1971; Ross et al. 1996). Increased abundance of gull species has been related to poor management of waste disposal (Coulson and Coulson 1983) and poor feed management at aquaculture facilities (Harrison 2010). Maintaining and improving good management practices at waste and aquaculture facilities may be important in reducing predation impacts to seabird colonies.
Long-nosed Fur Seals (Arctocephalus forsteri) are known to predate Little Penguins in South Australian and western Victoria. Numbers of fur seal are recovering from severe harvesting in the 1800s (Shaughnessy et al. 2015). The increasing trend in South Australia is likely to continue into the foreseeable future, primarily by expansion in colonies on Kangaroo Island and by establishment of new colonies (Shaughnessy et al. 2015). Long-nosed Fur Seals will eat Little Penguins whereas Australian Fur Seals (A. pusillus) do not (Hume et al. 2004, Page et al. 2005) and Australian Sea Lions do so very rarely (McIntosh et al. 2006). In studies of the occurrence of Little Penguin remains in scats and regurgitates of Long-nosed Fur Seal, the occurrence is around 30 per cent in South Australia and western Victoria (Bool et al. 2007, Page et al. 2005). Predation of Little Penguins by Long-nosed Fur Seals has been identified as a plausible cause of penguin decline in some colonies.
Fisheries interactions and by-catch
From time-to-time seabirds may interact with fishing boats that use certain fishing gears, particularly trawl, longline, purse seine and gillnet gear (Clay et al. 2019). Incidental mortality (bycatch) in fisheries remains one of the greatest threats to seabirds globally (Clay et al. 2019). Birds are attracted to fishing vessels as a source of food, particularly when bait, by-catch and fisheries waste and offal is being thrown back into the ocean.
An ‘interaction’ is any physical contact a person, boat or fishing gear has with a protected species that causes the animal stress, injury or death (AFMA 2019). Interactions with seabirds in trawl fisheries occur when birds foraging on discards or offal are injured or killed on collision with net monitoring and warp cables, dragged underwater and drowned when their wings become entangled around the warp, or become entangled in nets. Birds can also get caught on the hooks of longlines when the gear is being deployed or retrieved and the birds are chasing the bait.
Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds 25
Threats
In Australia, the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA) collects data on interactions with protected seabirds through its monitoring programs. All fishers are required to report any interactions they have with seabirds through their logbooks. AFMA officers can also travel as observers on Australian fishing boats to collect biological data and make environmental observations which contributes to the monitoring of fishing interactions with protected species. Electronic monitoring of fishing activities, including interactions with seabirds, through the mounting of electronic monitoring systems on fishing vessels, is also being used in
Commonwealth fisheries.
AFMA and industry work in partnership to minimise and avoid interactions with protected seabirds. For example, fishery operations in Commonwealth longline fisheries are guided by the Australian Government’s Threat Abatement Plan for the incidental catch (or bycatch) of seabirds during oceanic longline fishing operations (2018). This threat abatement plan was developed to address the key threatening process of ‘the incidental catch (or bycatch) of seabirds during oceanic longline fishing operations’. The key threatening process was listed in July 2000 under the EPBC Act. This threat abatement plan is considered to be a feasible, effective and efficient approach to abating the threat to Australia’s biodiversity from the incidental catch (or bycatch) of seabirds during oceanic longline fishing operations. The threat abatement plan binds the Commonwealth and its agencies to respond to the impact of oceanic longline fishing on seabirds, and identifies the research, management and other actions needed to reduce the impacts of the key threatening process to an acceptable level.
The Australian Government has also developed a National Plan of Action for Minimising the Incidental Catch of Seabirds in Australian Capture Fisheries (NPOA–Seabirds). NPOA–Seabirds is a voluntary measure that has been developed to provide a comprehensive and nationally consistent approach to reducing the impact of fishing on seabirds. It draws together existing regulatory and voluntary management arrangements into one document and provides additional guidance for future management decisions around seabird mitigation measures.
The plan provides guidance on best practice mitigation, monitoring and reporting of seabird interactions. It aims to reduce duplication, target responses to areas identified as having the strongest need, and assist fisheries managers and industry towards more uniform, efficient and cost-effective seabird bycatch management.
AFMA also uses seabird management plans to reduce fishing interactions with protected seabirds. Seabird management plans are tailored to individual fishing boats and identify the main threats posed to seabirds by that boat. It also sets out the mitigation measures the concession holder has agreed to implement to reduce the risk of seabird interactions.
Mitigation measures are another way to reduce interactions between fisheries and seabirds. A range of measures is available that can minimise bycatch, and improvements and novel approaches are still being researched. Although some approaches are widely advocated, none is 100 per cent effective in isolation. There is extensive variation in operational and gear characteristics among fisheries, and they may overlap with different assemblages of seabirds which vary in susceptibility to capture. Consequently, mitigation needs to be tailored carefully, and if introduced in combination with close monitoring of compliance has been very effective (Phillips et al. 2016).
Further information on mitigation devices can be reviewed here: bycatch-reduction-devices.
26 Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds
Threats
Prey depletion
Long-term demographic studies show that seabird populations may suffer from competition with fisheries (Bertrand et al 2012; Grémillet et al. 2018). Tuna fisheries are thought to have reduced prey availably for a number of procellariforms as many species rely on tuna to herd shoals of small fish to the surface where they become available for surface-feeding birds (Au et al. 1986; Furness 2003; Brooke 2004). Harvesting of marine resources can affect marine ecosystems and predator-prey interactions by the removal or redistribution of biomass central to pelagic food webs. In particular, fisheries targeting forage fish and euphausiids may be in competition with seabirds for food resources. Understanding this process is critical for the implementation of a whole of ecosystem approach to fisheries management.
Resource extraction
The effects of terrestrial mining can be profound and have direct consequences on seabirds and their habitats, or indirect impacts via disturbance or pollution. Guano mining in the 19th and 20th Centuries led to the human colonisation of many seabird breeding islands for so called ‘white gold’. Important island habitats were severely modified to fuel the demand for the highly effective fertilizer. Colonisation also spread invasive species which helped accelerate seabird declines on some islands. Even today, some historical guano mines have yet to recover from mining activities and will take hundreds of years to recover fully, if at all.
Whilst the impacts of tailings storage facilities mainly affect waterfowl and passerines, better knowledge of tailings dam ecology is required to develop site-specific monitoring and mitigation to better understand risks posed to wildlife, including seabirds (Smith et al. 2008). Solar-powered floating deterrent beacons with sonic guns have been trialled at ponds to deter species such as gulls and terns and some shorebirds (Read 1999). The Australian Government recommends monitoring of wildlife impacts and reducing the risks associated with the storage of water on tailings storage facilities, which could involve perimeter fencing, minimising the area of ponded water, netting or intermittent noise to distract birds (Commonwealth of Australia 2016).
The recently discovered breeding sites of Tahiti Petrel (Pseudobulweria rostrata) in New Caledonia are all in areas threatened by nickel mining (Spaggiari and Baré 2004, Delelis et al. 2007, Le Breton 2008), with mining activities predicted to have severe negative impacts on breeding success and potential adult mortality through ingestion of harmful materials. Threats such as these need to be minimised to avoid accelerating population declines.
Seabirds are known to aggregate around oil and gas platforms in above average numbers due to night lighting, flaring, food concentrations and other visual cues (Wiese et al. 2001). Bird mortality has been documented due to collision with the structure, oiling and incineration by the flares (Wiese et al. 2001). Implementing a comprehensive monitoring program of impacts of these offshore platforms should include nature, timing and extent of bird mortality caused by these structures. This information can then be used to better inform regulators responsible for exploration and extraction proposals.
Proposals for oil and mineral exploration and exploitation should be adequately assessed and, as appropriate, conditions imposed to ensure there are no adverse effects on seabirds or their habitats.
Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds 27
Threats
Renewable energy
Marine renewable energy developments (MREDs) are becoming an increasing feature of the marine environment. MREDs are just one of several infrastructure developments in the marine environment that have the potential to impact seabirds. Globally, there is potential for generating energy from the marine environment in the form of extensive wind, wave and tidal-stream resources. However, the potential effects of MREDs on seabirds are not yet fully understood. Seabirds may be directly affected through collision with infrastructure or indirectly affected by displacement from foraging areas. A key question is how MREDs may affect seabird foraging success through changes in foraging behaviour and will be key to understanding whether large-scale installations could have impacts at a population level.
A key research area needed to address this issue is to better understand seabird distribution and foraging behaviour. This information will improve our understanding and be able to better predict adverse impacts in seabird populations.
Terrestrial windfarms in Tasmania have been reported to kill seabirds including diving-petrels, shearwaters, prions, storm-petrels and gannets from bird strikes (Hull et al. 2013). Species with large wingspans and relatively slow wingbeats are known to be susceptible to striking terrestrial windfarms, suggesting White-bellied Sea-Eagles, albatrosses and larger petrels may be at risk if offshore windfarms are constructed. Floating solar fields or deployment of solar fields over marine saltfield ponds and wastewater ponds may limit foraging opportunities for seabirds, conversely these may increase undesired roosting activity, fouling panels that may need mitigation.
Anthropogenic disturbance
Disturbance can be defined as any activity that changes the behaviour or physiology of one or more individuals within a colony (Gӧtmark 1999; Carney and Sydeman 1999; Nisbert 2000). Disturbance of seabirds causing adverse impacts can be classified in two broad categories: recreational disturbance and investigator disturbance (see reviews Gӧtmark 1999; Carney and Sydeman 1999; Nisbert 2000; Carey 2009). Recreational disturbance can be as simple as walking a dog on a beach close to nesting colonies of terns, causing them to flush off their nests. Investigator or researcher disturbance are activities affecting individual birds or nests such as marking nests, trapping, banding and handling of adults and their young.
Studies of breeding seabirds including gulls, shearwaters, penguins, boobies, gannets and cormorants have demonstrated that excessive disturbance can reduce reproductive success, reduce chick growth, disrupt feeding ecology and change physiological parameters (Gӧtmark 1999; Carney and Sydeman 1999; Nisbert 2000; Carey 2009). Efforts to reduce disturbance from recreational activities and researchers should be managed accordingly particularly when threatened species are involved or the breeding colony is small. For example, guidelines for visitors to seabird colonies in the Great Barrier Reef (GBRMPA 1997) and Macquarie Island (Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Service 2018) have been developed to support tourist operations and researchers undertaking necessary biological investigations. GBRMPA have also developed guidelines for managing research in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMPA 2019).
28 Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds
Threats
Hunting
Historically, a number of seabird colonies were exploited for their eggs, chicks and adults. In northern Australia fleets of Malayan trepang fisherman took large numbers of boobies and frigatebirds as fresh meat (Serventy et al. 1971) in places such as Ashmore Reef, but this has since largely ceased with the establishment of a marine park at Ashmore Reef in 1983. Historically, Cocos (Keeling) Islanders took large numbers of seabirds at North Keeling, particularly Red-footed Booby (Sula sula) prior to establishment of Pulu Keeling National Park in 1995. Protection of migratory species under the EPBC Act has made it an offence to kill many of the birds that the Cocos-Malay community had traditionally harvested with illegal poaching of seabirds both in the park and around the southern atoll an ongoing problem. In 1998 the Australian Federal Police implemented a gun control program under the National Firearms Program Implementation Act 1998 for registered firearms in the territory. This has helped to reduce the level of poaching of protected seabirds.
In Tasmania, Little Penguin, Black-faced Cormorant (Phalacrocorax fuscescens) and Short-tailed Shearwaters (Ardenna tenuirostris) have previously been used illegally by crayfishers as bait for their pots (Serventy et al. 1971). Historic impacts also extended to Australasian Gannets (Morus serrator) breeding on Cat Island with the species eventually expatriated in the 1980s (Serventy et al. 1971). Cat Island had been the largest gannet colony in Australia before its demise. The practice of egg collection or “egging” still occurs in some parts of northern Australia by Indigenous communities and Norfolk Island but is not considered a widespread threat to any seabird population.
The Native Title Act 1993 identifies activities such as hunting and fishing as potential native title rights and interests and permits Native Title holders to hunt certain species for the purposes of satisfying their personal, domestic or non-commercial communal needs. In Tasmania, there is an annual take of Short-tailed Shearwater chicks which is regulated by the Tasmanian Government. There are three separately managed harvests namely:
Indigenous commercial harvest – undertaken on three islands; Trefoil Island off Tasmania’s north west coast in western Bass Strait; Great Dog (or Big Dog) Island and Babel Island, both in the Furneaux Island Group in Eastern Bass Strait. This harvest is licensed by the Tasmanian Government, but it does not undertake any monitoring on these sites or require harvesters to report numbers harvested. This industry is entirely self-managed with the community undertaking monitoring – no quotas are set by the Tasmaninan Government. However, the industry has been shown to self-manage, for example the community shut down harvest in 2014 due to low chick numbers. Season duration is restricted by the Tasmanian Government.
Indigenous cultural harvest – undertaken under permit on a couple of small sites including (in recent years) South Arm and Cape Queen Elizabeth on Bruny Island, both in southern Tasmania and at Seymour on Tasmania’s east coast. The Tasmanian Government monitors the South Arm colony, the number of harvesters is restricted, and daily bag limits apply. There is also a small unreported cultural harvest on indigenous-owned islands.
Recreational harvest – undertaken under license between 38 and 44 of Tasmania’s known 209 colonies (Skira et.al. 1996) and open to anyone eligible for purchasing a recreational license. Harvest areas include King Island and the Hunter Island Group both in western Bass Strait; the Furneaux Island Group in eastern Bass Strait and Tasmania’s West Coast, near Strahan. The season generally runs for 16 days with a daily bag limit of 25 birds (15 on the west coast).
Sooty Shearwaters (Ardenna grisea) and Grey-faced Petrels (Pterodroma gouldi) in New Zealand are subject to an annual harvest for their oil, feathers and meat (Rodriguez et al. 2019).
Wildlife Conservation Plan for Seabirds 29
Threats
Transport
Shipping
Ships may directly affect seabirds through their activities close to colonies or roost sites. For example, the bright deck lights of some ships may disturb and disorientate roosting seabirds as well as cause collision with birds (discussed further in Light Pollution below). Indirect influences relate to pollution from ships such as oil spills and garbage.
The use of boats or other watercraft close to breeding islands and roost site requires regular monitoring and assessment. Boat strike causing mortality of Little Penguins has been recorded in inshore coastal environments (Cannell et al. 2016).
Aircraft
The passage of aircraft, particularly those flying low over breeding islands, may adversely affect colonies through excessive disturbance. This has been documented in Australia, mainly in the Great Barrier Reef. Hicks et al. (1987) found that Sooty Terns and Common Noddies breeding on Michaelmas Cay took flight in reaction to the landing and departure of seaplanes within 400 m. On Lady Elliot Island in the southern Great Barrier Reef, small commercial aircraft regularly land on an airstrip which bisects the island. The airstrip is several meters from breeding colonies of Crested (Thalasseus bergii) and Bridled Terns (O. anaethetus) and Common Noddies. Apart from the occasional bird strike, no studies have been made on the potential impact on breeding success or displacement. Helicopters are used in the Great Barrier Reef to transport tourists to some resort islands. Frequency, approach and overflight height are all potential issues that impact nesting seabirds. Some species may be more sensitive to aircraft, whereas at sites regularly exposed to aircraft, the disturbance may be less severe due to habituation (Giese 1998; Giese and Riddle 1999).
In some areas, local no-fly guidelines have been implemented around nesting areas for White-bellied Sea Eagles to reduce the potential impacts of aircraft on individuals.
Drones
Drones are being increasingly used in innovative ways to enhance environmental research and conservation (Hodgson et al. 2018). Despite their widespread use for wildlife studies, there are few scientifically justified guidelines that provide minimum distances at which wildlife can be approached to minimize visual and auditory disturbance. Determining these distances is essential to ensuring that behavioural and survey data have no observer bias, and once understood, should form the basis of requirements for animal ethics and scientific permit approvals.
Drone disturbance may be species-specific, and it is possible that different avian taxa exhibit different behavioural disturbance thresholds. For example, Bevan et al. (2018) observed a colony of Crested Terns resting on a sand-bank displayed disturbance behaviours (e.g. flight response) when a drone was flown below 60 m altitude. At Raine Island National Park (RINP), Queensland, preliminary data suggests that other avian species are even more sensitive to drone disturbance than Crested Terns (Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service 2017). Official guidance for drone use within RINP indicates that drone altitudes of 80 and 120 m, respectively, are required to avoid disturbing Brown Booby (Sula leucogaster) and Common Noddy. These requirements suggest that drone disturbance may be species-specific, and that different avian taxa exhibit different behavioural disturbance threshold altitudes. Such thresholds for target species should be determined prior to initiating drone-based biological studies and monitoring.
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