Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (National Recovery Plan for Macadamia Species) Instrument 2023 (Cth)

Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (National Recovery Plan for Macadamia Species) Instrument 2023

We jointly make this recovery plan under subsection 269A(3) of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.

Dated 4 October 2023

Tanya Plibersek

Minister for the Environment and Water (Commonwealth)

Dated 7 March 2023

Meaghan Scanlon

Minister for the Environment and the Great Barrier Reef (Queensland)

Minister for Science and Youth Affairs

2.1A Name

This instrument is the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (National Recovery Plan for Macadamia Species) Instrument 2023.

2.1B Commencement

This instrument commences the day after it is registered.

2.1C Authority

This instrument is made under subsection 269A(3) of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.

National Recovery Plan for Macadamia Species

Ownership of intellectual property rights

Unless otherwise noted, copyright (and any other intellectual property rights) in this publication is owned by the Commonwealth of Australia (referred to as the Commonwealth).

Creative Commons licence

All material in this publication is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence except content supplied by third parties, logos and the Commonwealth Coat of Arms.

Inquiries about the licence and any use of this document should be emailed to [email protected].

Cataloguing data

This publication (and any material sourced from it) should be attributed as: DCCEEW 2023, National Recovery Plan for Macadamia Species, Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water, Canberra. CC BY 4.0

This plan was prepared for the Commonwealth of Australia by Powell, M., Gould, L., Costello, G., Gregory, M. & Donatiu P with support from the Australian Macadamia Society.

Original Southern Macadamia Species Recovery Plan prepared by Glenn Costello, Michael Gregory and Paul Donatiu for Horticulture Australia Limited and the Australian Macadamia Society.

This publication is available at dcceew.gov.au/publications.

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water

GPO Box 3090 Canberra ACT 2601

Telephone 1800 900 090

Web dcceew.gov.au

Disclaimer

The Australian Government acting through the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water has exercised due care and skill in preparing and compiling the information and data in this publication. Notwithstanding, the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water, its employees and advisers disclaim all liability, including liability for negligence and for any loss, damage, injury, expense or cost incurred by any person as a result of accessing, using or relying on any of the information or data in this publication to the maximum extent permitted by law.

Acknowledgement of Country

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water recognises the First Peoples of this nation and their ongoing connection to culture and country. We acknowledge First Nations Peoples as the Traditional Owners, Custodians and Lore Keepers of the world's oldest living culture and pay respects to their Elders past and present.

Image Credits

Front cover: Glenn Costello, Paul Donatiu and Ian McConachie

Contents

Executive summary

Species description and taxonomy

Current species status

Habitat and distribution summary

Threats summary

Recovery objective

Summary of actions

1 General information

Conservation status

International obligations

Affected interests

Consultation with First Nations people

Benefits to other species or communities

Recovery Plans relevant to the National Recovery Plan for Macadamia Species

Social and economic impacts

2 Biological information

Introduction

Macadamia integrifolia (Queensland nut tree)

Macadamia jansenii (Bulburin nut tree)

Macadamia ternifolia (Gympie nut)

Macadamia tetraphylla (Rough-shelled bush nut)

3 Threats

Biology and ecology relevant to threats

Species specific threats

Prioritisation of threats

4 Evaluation of previous Recovery Plan

Overview

Achievements against performance criteria

5 Updated recovery objectives, performance criteria and actions

Overall objective

Overview

Performance criteria and management actions

6 Summary of recommended management practices

7 Costs of recovery

8 Evaluation of Recovery Plan

Acknowledgements

Acronyms

Bibliography

Appendix 1: Recovery Team membership

Appendix 2: Risk probability, consequence and impact analysis

Probability assessment (defining the probability of the issue occurring)

Consequence assessment (defining the consequences of the issue occurring)

Tables

Table 1. Legislative status of Australian Macadamia species.

Table 2. Distinguishing features of Macadamia species.

Table 3. Habitat critical to survival of Macadamia integrifolia.

Table 4. Priority populations of Macadamia integrifolia.

Table 5. Known populations of Macadamia integrifolia in Australia by geographical cluster.

Table 6. Known populations of Macadamia jansenii in Australia.

Table 7. Known populations of Macadamia ternifolia in Australia by geographical cluster.

Table 8. Known populations of Macadamia tetraphylla in Australia by geographical cluster.

Table 9. Threat prioritisation.

Table 10. Summary of specific objectives and threats addressed.

Table 11. Summary of actions to mitigate threats.

Table 12. Costs associated with recovering species in the National Recovery Plan for Macadamia Species.

Table 13. Macadamia Conservation Committee.

Table 14. Macadamia Conservation Research Committee

Table 15. Levels of impact and their ecological consequences.

Figures

Figure 1. Natural distribution of Macadamia and natural hybrids.

Figure 2. Risk evaluation matrix – potential impacts

Executive summary

This Recovery Plan replaces the former Southern Macadamia Species Recovery Plan. It contains considerable new information gathered during the implementation of the former plan and utilises this to determine new actions and priorities for Macadamia conservation.

The review of the former Recovery Plan was an initiative of the Macadamia Conservation Committee (MCC) and was undertaken by members of that committee, with funding support from the Australian Macadamia Society and Horticulture Australia Ltd.

Species description and taxonomy

Recent taxonomic reclassification of the Macadamia genus (Mast et al., 2008) has resulted in the five species of the former northern clade being placed in a newly created genus: Lasjia and the four remaining Macadamia species comprising the former southern clade being retained in the genus Macadamia. The four species of Macadamia are genetically similar, and all are mid stratum or sub canopy trees with simple leaves arranged either in whorls of three or four, axillary flowers in brush-like hanging racemes and bear rounded fruits with a hard brown inner shell protecting the nut.

Current species status

The four species of Macadamia are currently listed as either endangered or vulnerable under relevant Commonwealth and State legislation across their respective ranges. In addition, all four species are listed in the Red List for Threatened Plants (IUCN 1997).

Habitat and distribution summary

All four species are endemic to subtropical rainforest or to a lesser extent, wet sclerophyll communities containing a rainforest understory found within the north east New South Wales (NSW) and south east Queensland coastal regions. Except for M. jansenii (which is recorded from a single location approximately 150 km north of its closest congener population), they have overlapping ranges.

Threats summary

Clearing to accommodate human population growth and development, habitat fragmentation, small population size, presence of weed species and altered fire regimes are the major threatening processes affecting Macadamia species. Climate change in the form of variable rainfall and higher temperatures, the potential for genetic pollution from commercial plantations and a lack of public awareness of the conservation status of wild Macadamias are also considered significant potential threats.

Recovery objective

The overall objective of this plan is to ensure the long-term viability of all four Macadamia species through maintaining existing populations and implementing measures to promote recovery.

Summary of actions

Key actions required for the recovery of Macadamia species include:

liaising with state agencies, local authorities and regional NRM organisations in order to incorporate Macadamia conservation into their biodiversity conservation and natural resource management strategies.

negotiating appropriate agreements with landholders to establish greater long-term security for priority areas on private property.

providing land managers with the resources to develop and implement management plans for Macadamia conservation.

completing an ex-situ conservation program for M. jansenii.

identifying gaps in the current understanding of Macadamia species ecology and commensurate research priorities for conservation.

Additional actions include assessment of the distribution of genetic diversity among Macadamia populations, conducting further research into the extent of pollen flow between Macadamia cultivars and wild populations, setting up long term monitoring of strategic populations to assess impacts of climate change and resurveying selected populations that have long term population data to assess the impacts of fragmentation on population structure. The recovery team commenced actions under this plan in 2014.

General information

The Macadamia genus is endemic to Australia and is the predominant Australian native commercial food crop. Two of the four Macadamia species produce a highly desired, edible nut and are extensively cultivated within and outside their natural distribution in Australia and internationally. Despite this, all four species are threatened in the wild.

Wild populations of Macadamia are genetic reservoirs for the Macadamia industry, which was founded from only a very small number of trees exported to Hawai’i in the late 1800s. Wild trees contain a genetic diversity that does not exist within cultivated trees and are a resource vital to building industry resilience to changes in weather patterns, emerging pests and possible diseases.

Preceding contemporary utilisation, Macadamias were harvested and eaten by First Nations communities along the east coast, as well as traded with other communities and, following colonisation, with settlers.

Macadamia nuts are also sought after by cockatoos and native as well as introduced rat species, though few other animals can crack the hard shell found on the edible species.

Conservation status

This Plan encompasses the four Macadamia species, all of which are listed as threatened under relevant State threatened species legislation where they occur and under Commonwealth legislation (Table 1).

Table 1. Legislative status of Australian Macadamia species

Scientific Name	Macadamia species	-	-
-	Queensland¹	NSW²	Australia³
Macadamia integrifolia Maiden & Betche	Vulnerable	N/A	Vulnerable
Macadamia jansenii C.L. Gross & P.H. Weston	Endangered	N/A	Endangered
Macadamia ternifolia F. Muell	Vulnerable	N/A	Vulnerable
Macadamia tetraphylla L.A.S. Johnson	Vulnerable	Vulnerable	Vulnerable

1 Nature Conservation Act 1992 (Qld); 2 Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016 (NSW); 3 Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth).

International obligations

All four Macadamia species are listed on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Red List for Threatened Plants (IUCN 1997), with M. jansenii listed as endangered and the other three species as vulnerable.

Australia is a signatory to the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (FAO 2009), adopted by consensus and as a binding international agreement at the Thirty-first Session of the Conference of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations on 3 November 2001. Under the terms of this agreement, Australia is required to conserve the genetic resources of Macadamia species for food and agricultural purposes.

Macadamia integrifolia, M. integrifolia x tetraphylla and M. tetraphylla are included on the List of Exempt Native Species (LENS) for oil, fruit, husks and shells. Native species export permits may be required if these species are to be exported in any form or from any other species than those included on LENS.

Affected interests

Macadamias have a restricted distribution within appropriate habitats which occur on public and private land across a range of tenures.

Organisations and individuals that may be affected by the actions in this Recovery Plan include:

Traditional Owners, Indigenous Land Councils and other Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander groups

Australian Government, including Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (DCCEEW)

State Government agencies, including:

- NSW Department of Family and Community Services and Justice (DFCSJ)

- NSW Department of Planning, Industry and Environment (DPIE)

- NSW Local Land Services (LLS) North Coast, Northern Tablelands and North West regions

- Queensland Department Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Partnerships (DATSIP)

- Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries (DAF)

- Queensland Department of Environment and Science (DES)

- Queensland Department of Natural Resources, Mines and Energy (DNRME)

- Queensland Department of Fire and Emergency Services (DFES)

Local Governments

Industry, including:

- Australian Macadamia Society

- Growcom

- Horticulture Innovation Australia

- HQPlantations

Non-government conservation organisations, including:

- Brisbane Rainforest Action and Information Network

- Landcare groups, for example, Big Scrub Landcare, Gympie Landcare, Noosa and District Landcare, Tamborine Mountain Landcare

- Catchment associations, for example, Mary River Catchment Coordinating Committee, Gold Coast Catchment Association, Pine Rivers Catchment Association, Brisbane Catchments Network

- Field naturalists’ groups

- Australian Native Plants Society (Australia) (ANPSA) and affiliated regional societies including Native Plants Queensland and Australian Plants Society NSW

- Greening Australia

- Environment groups, for example, Sunshine Coast Environment Council, GECKO, Queensland Conservation Council

Regional Natural Resource Management (NRM) organisations, including:

- Burnett-Mary Regional Group

- Healthy Land and Water (South East Queensland)

Research institutions, including:

- CSIRO

- Griffith University

- Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI)

- University of the Sunshine Coast

- University of Queensland

- Southern Cross University

Land managers, public and private

Northern Rivers Fire and Biodiversity Consortium, South East Queensland Fire and Biodiversity Consortium

Consultation with First Nations people

During the development of the initial Plan, several Aboriginal groups with connection to Country providing Macadamia habitat were contacted. These included the Gubbi Gubbi and Yuggera groups, and the South East Queensland Traditional Owner Land and Sea Management Alliance (SEQTOLSMA). Macadamia nuts have been recorded as a valuable food, trading and cultural resource to Aboriginal people (SEQTOLSMA members pers. comm.). All these groups reiterated the importance of conserving threatened Macadamia species. Aboriginal people have been and will continue to be encouraged to be involved in the recovery process through the implementation of recovery actions. For example, in the Bundaberg region, the Recovery Team is actively working with the Gurang and Gooreng Gooreng peoples through the Gidarjil Corporation to establish and maintain four ex-situ populations of the endangered M. jansenii.

Benefits to other species or communities

Specific localities for some Macadamia populations provide valuable habitat for a diverse range of other flora and fauna, including other State or Commonwealth listed threatened species and ecological communities. A significant proportion of Macadamia populations occur in the critically endangered Lowland Rainforest of Subtropical Australia ecological community (EPBC, 1999), others in regional ecosystems considered ‘Endangered’ or ‘Of concern’ under the Vegetation Management Act 1999 (Qld) (VMA 1999) and others in endangered ecological communities listed in the Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016 (NSW) (BCA 2016). The successful protection of Macadamia populations and implementation of recovery actions at these sites will provide benefits to non-target taxa and threatened communities.

Recovery Plans relevant to the National Recovery Plan for Macadamia Species

The following approved Recovery Plans are relevant to this Plan:

Border Ranges Rainforest Biodiversity Management Plan NSW & Queensland, 2010.

Northern Rivers Regional Biodiversity Management Plan, 2010.

Social and economic impacts

Populations of Macadamias found on private lands are generally located in areas where in-situ protection – for example, protective fencing and weed control – will have little or no negative economic impact on the viability of farm enterprises. In contrast, lack of protection of wild Macadamia populations may have significant economic impacts on the long-term viability of the Macadamia nut industry globally through a reduction in genetic diversity available for long term cultivar development including traits of resistance to disease and pathogens.

Horticulture Innovation Australia has recently produced a Strategic Investment Plan 2017–2021 (HIA 2017) for the Australian Macadamia industry. This plan identifies that wild Macadamia germplasm is a source of gene stock for commercial varieties and refers to providing allowance within the breeding program for conservation of wild Macadamia and supporting the work of the Macadamia Conservation Trust.

Biological information

Introduction

Macadamia belongs to the Proteaceae, an ancient angiosperm family whose initial differentiation from ancestral forms occurred in the south-east of Australia 90–100 million years ago. The family is well known for other genera such as Banksia, Grevillea and Hakea. Proteaceae appear to have been a major component of the early angiosperm dominated rainforests which once covered most of Australia. Macadamia were probably widely distributed within these early forests as evidenced by Macadamia type fossil pollen recorded in sediments in south-east Australia, central coastal Queensland and New Zealand.

The commencement of significant and permanent change in climate beginning about 40 million years ago resulted in a long-term trend of contraction of rainforest towards coastal areas, which accelerated through the Quaternary period. This process contributed to adaptation to drier fire prone habitats by much of the Proteaceae family, with a relict rainforest component including Macadamia, becoming progressively more restricted and disjunct in distribution over time and space.

Macadamia are endemic to the north east NSW and south east Queensland coastal regions. They are mid stratum or sub canopy trees whose prime habitat is subtropical rainforests, although they are also found in sclerophyll forests where rainforest is subdominant (often its presence is fire mediated).

Macadamia flowers are racemes of cream or pink flowers, which are followed by hard, woody fruits that enclose a hard-shelled nut containing a cream kernel. In two of the four Macadamia species, this kernel is edible, and cultivars of these species are the grown extensively within Australia and overseas. Macadamia flowering appears to be light-limited; trees growing within rainforest environments produce far less flowers than backyard or orchard trees, though, trees on rainforest edges or in forest gaps may produce abundant flowers.

The four species of Macadamias are all genetically closely related and three – M. integrifolia, M. ternifolia and M. tetraphylla – have overlapping ranges (refer Figure 1); M. jansenii is the exception and is known only from a single location 150 km north of the closest Macadamia population. The natural distribution of M. integrifolia, M. ternifolia and M. tetraphylla are predominantly restricted to a narrow east-west zone encompassing the coastal ranges and foothills west of the Pacific Ocean. Table 2 summarises the characteristic features that help to distinguish Macadamia species from each other.

Table 2. Distinguishing features of Macadamia species

Species	Feature	-	-
-	Leaves	Flower colour	Nuts
Macadamia integrifolia	3 leaves per node; smooth edges to older leaves; green new flush	Cream	Thick, hard, smooth shell; edible kernel
Macadamia jansenii	3 leaves per node; smooth edges to leaves; green or pink new flush	Cream	Small with thin, smooth shell; bitter kernel
Macadamia ternifolia	3 leaves per node; spiny leaves; pink new flush	Pink	Small with thin, smooth shell; bitter kernel
Macadamia tetraphylla	4 leaves per node; spiny leaves, pink new flush	Pink	Thick, hard, rough shell; edible kernel

Most knowledge of Macadamia has been gained through research to support the commercial industry, which has focused on M. integrifolia, and M. tetraphylla; further research is required to determine whether this knowledge can validly be applied to the other two species. In recent times, the industry has expanded its research to investigate the potential value of wild trees of these species and to explore characteristics of M. ternifolia and M. jansenii that may be of value to the industry.

Macadamia integrifolia is highly susceptible to fire damage (O’Hare et al. 2004). A known response by orchard trees in response to fires hot enough to destroy the cambium layer, is to shoot from roots below or near the ground (Rosedale 1969); this results in multi-stemmed trees. Multi-stemmed plants are common in wild populations of all four species, so it is assumed that all species are similarly susceptible to fire.

Pollen flow between Macadamia trees growing in highly fragmented landscapes has been reported at distances of up to 3 km (Neal 2007); it is likely that in more intact forest habitats, pollen exchange occurs across much shorter distances. Flower production is also reduced in shaded environments, such as under the rainforest canopy. Whilst self-pollination can occur in Macadamia, cross-pollination results in greater nut production.

Trees that display morphological characteristics of both M. integrifolia and M. tetraphylla are found in a hybrid zone up to 20 km wide (Peace 2005). While similar observations have not been reported for M. integrifolia and M. ternifolia, DNA marker studies have confirmed hybrid genotypes (Peace 2005). Hybridisation may be an important survival mechanism, providing a means of adaptation to changed environmental conditions, and evidence of the evolutionary retention of genes better adapted to the same. Hybrid populations offer important foci for ecological research, potentially improve long-term species viability where overlap occurs, and may be important conservation priorities.

Seed dispersal is by small rodents, cockatoos and gravity fall, probably with some assistance from local stream flooding. The role of seed predators such as cockatoos and rodents in effecting seed dispersal is likely to be limited. Studies of the caches of the introduced black rat (Rattus rattus) – a common predator of trees in orchards, backyards and wild populations close to urban areas – found they did not contain any undamaged nuts; thus, germination of the dispersed seed is unlikely (Elmouttie and Wilson 2005).

Macadamias have had a long association with humans; nut shells have been found in Aboriginal Middens near Brisbane and they are thought to have been a valuable trade item between Aboriginal communities along the east coast of Australia and subsequently with early settlers. Macadamia trees growing on the edges of the rainforest, thus receiving more light and producing more nuts, are likely to have been regularly cropped. It was mainly the women who searched for, collected and prepared the nuts. They cracked the nuts between rocks and either ate them immediately or roasted the nut in the ash of their fires and carried them as a non-perishable food source (McConachie 2012).

Non-indigenous knowledge of Macadamia initiated with collection of specimens of the inedible M. ternifolia by the explorer Ludwig Leichardt in 1843, from about 60 km north of Brisbane. It wasn’t until around 1860 that settlers realised the fine eating qualities of both M. integrifolia and M. tetraphylla, subsequently planting them widely in farmyards and backyards as single trees, grown from seeds of local wild stock.

Early realisation of the commercial potential of Macadamia in Australia was inhibited by insect pests (which caused many flowers, nutlets and nuts to be lost), rats and other seed predators, and lack of horticultural knowledge (McConachie 2012). Despite this, the Macadamia nut industry was founded around 1880 at Rous Hill near Lismore using seed from local wild M. tetraphylla, with similar plantings recorded near Maleny in south east Queensland in the early 20th century. It was not until a small handful of Macadamia were sent to Hawai’i in the late 1870s that their full potential was able to be exploited and the industry significantly expanded. Australian Macadamias are the source genetic material for a growing global industry.

From a conservation perspective, the potential translocation of wild trees by First Nations peoples, combined with the transport and planting of nuts both within and outside of the natural distribution of Macadamias that has occurred in Australia since European arrival, can make it difficult to distinguish planted trees from in-situ wild stock. This is particularly the case in areas where native vegetation has been cleared for settlement or agriculture, and regrowth has occurred. This situation confounds identification of Macadamia distribution, natural habitat, and has implications for distribution of genetic resources.

Figure 1. Natural distribution of Macadamia and natural hybrids

Note: Areas of vegetation are those remnants in 2005 in NSW (NSW Department of Environment and Heritage) and 2006 in Queensland (Queensland Herbarium). Dotted lines show the extent of hybrid zones. Star represents the approximate location of M. jansenii (adapted from Hardner et al. 2009).

Macadamia integrifolia (Queensland nut tree)

Description

Macadamia integrifolia is a long-lived perennial mid-storey to sub canopy evergreen subtropical rainforest tree to 25 m tall, with greyish branchlets dotted with raised lenticels (Hauser and Blok 1992). Individuals are often multi-stemmed with small crowns. The simple obovate to narrowly oblong leaves are arranged in whorls of three or opposite, and 5.5–14 cm long by 2.5–6 cm wide (Stanley and Ross 2002). Blade tips are rounded and finish in a short sharp point; the base tapers to petioles 5–10 mm long. Axillary creamy-white flowers are arranged in brush-like hanging racemes 10–30 cm long. Rounded fruits are green, 2.5–3.5 cm wide with a hard, smooth, brown inner shell protecting the edible nut. Flowering period is August to October with kernel maturation from December to March, with mature nuts falling to the ground thereafter.

Life history and ecology

Macadamia integrifolia is a long-lived species which matures at around ten years and has a juvenile period of more than six years (Queensland CRA/RFA Steering Committee 1997, cited in DoE 2019a). Trees (propagated from wild seed) over 100 years old are known; for example, the Walter Hill Tree, planted in the Brisbane Botanic Gardens, is at least 160 years old, and the Jordan Tree on the Gold Coast is thought to be over 140 years old (National Trust, 2013).

Knowledge of M. integrifolia response to fire has been gained through research to benefit the Macadamia industry. This has found that the species is highly susceptible to fire damage (O'Hare et al. 2004). A hot fire will burn the trunk, destroy the conductive tissue and cause gumming on Macadamia trees but if the cambium layer between the bark and the wood is killed, the tree may send up shoots from below the ground level and become multi-stemmed (Rosedale 1969). Neal (2007) considered multi-stemming in wild trees a response to stress or damage.

Both introduced European honey (Apis mellifera) and native bees (Tetragonula spp.) appear to be the main pollinators, with native bees being superior pollinators. Trees in orchards are rarely observed to produce seed from self-pollination (Neal 2007).

Seed dispersal is by small rodents, cockatoos and gravity fall, probably with some assistance from local stream flooding. The role of seed predators such as cockatoos and rodents in effecting seed dispersal is likely to be limited. Studies of the caches of the introduced black rat – a common predator of trees in orchards, backyards and wild populations close to urban areas – found they did not contain any undamaged nuts; thus, germination of the dispersed seed is unlikely (Elmouttie and Wilson 2005).

Hybridisation has been documented between M. integrifolia and M. ternifolia, and between M. integrifolia and M. tetraphylla in areas of range overlap where both species co-occur within the same rainforest patch.

Genetic studies have been carried out on wild M. integrifolia DNA using RAFs (Radioactive Amplified DNA Fingerprinting) microsatellites and isozymes techniques. Both molecular marker evidence and evidence from variation for horticultural traits indicates there is moderate to high genetic diversity within the species and among populations (Neal 2007; Hardner et al. 2009).

The latest paper on the phylogenetic structure of M. integrifolia confirms a deep divergence between northern and southern clades of the species, suggesting a historical barrier to seed dispersal north of Brisbane, between the Brisbane and Mary catchments (Nock et al. 2019). This is consistent with two subtropical refugia as defined by Weber et al. (2014). Each of the northern and southern clades forms two distinct sub-clades – Mt Bauple and Gympie for the northern clade and for the southern clade, a division by the Brisbane River valley into sites to the north-west of Brisbane and sites south of Brisbane to the Gold Coast (Nock et al. 2019). A fifth sub-clade was identified by Nock et al. (2019) which was only represented by three old trees transplanted from the wild. It is hoped that further surveying and DNA testing will find other trees from this sub-clade and reveal their geographic origin, but it may be that they are from a population that is now extinct in the wild (Nock et al. 2019).

Evidence from paternity studies indicates presence of current gene flow by pollen between populations up to approximately 3 km in a highly fragmented landscape (Neal 2007). These data indicate that the species may survive small population size if there is a network of small populations within a region (meta-population) that enable the maintenance of genetic diversity. Neal et al. (2010) investigated the impact of habitat fragmentation on reproduction and growth of new trees in wild M. integrifolia populations, finding that fragmentation is not necessarily detrimental to reproduction in the short term, possibly because of increased flowering when the canopy cover is not as thick. This capacity for persistence is countered by localised seed dispersal and high predation on seeds, which make the species susceptible to fragmentation and variable population growth rates.

Distribution

Macadamia integrifolia is naturally distributed along the foothills and coastal ranges of south east Queensland from the NSW border to Mt Bauple near Maryborough, a distance of approximately 300 km, and is more widespread and frequent in the northern half of its range. The observed pattern of distribution of the species is one of clusters of populations, which are thought to be due to association with refugial habitats arising from long term climate cycles together with limited capacity for dispersal during periods of favourable climate (Powell et al. 2014). The largest number of recorded populations and individuals are located in an area centred on the Amamoor Valley southwest of Gympie; this area may contain up to 90% of the total extant number of this species, potentially more than 10,000 individuals (Neal et al. 2010) of which more than half are mature individuals. The balance of population clusters collectively contains in the order of 500–1,000 individuals. The species co-occurs with M. ternifolia on the Blackall Range and Samford Valley and with M. tetraphylla in the southern part of its range.

Over the extent of its natural distribution, M. integrifolia is generally found within lowland warm complex notophyll vine forest and Araucarian notophyll vine forest, which occur on metamorphosed sediments and interbedded volcanics or alluvia in higher rainfall areas. This species occupies all topographic positions including ridges, scree slopes, foot slopes, gullies, benches and riverine terraces. Soils are predominantly alluvial or volcanic, well drained, often with significant surface exposure of rock fragments. Slope and aspect vary. Elevation range is 5–600 m.

The currently recorded extent of occupied habitat is approximately 1,500 ha and the modelled extent of available habitat is approximately 30,000 ha within an area of 6,800 km². Total population size is estimated to be between 5,000–10,000 mature individuals within approximately 60 key populations with 10–300 mature specimens at each locality. Further surveys will improve knowledge of population size and distribution. Within the few relatively few areas of intact habitat, it is typically scantily distributed within the vegetation matrix. In disturbed riparian zones, it tends to occur in a clumped pattern of distribution in small remnant patches of habitat that are prone to weed invasion.

Habitat critical to the survival of the species

Macadamia integrifolia is found in a range of vegetation communities comprising complex and simple notophyll vine forests, simple microphyll-notophyll vine forest with emergent Araucaria and Argyrodendron, and sclerophyll forests where rainforest is subdominant, and its presence is mediated by fire (Powell et al. 2010).

The Queensland Herbarium Regional Ecosystem Description Database (REDD) identifies four Regional Ecosystems (REs) 12.3.1, 12.8.3, 12.11.10 and 12.12.16 as habitat for M. integrifolia (see Table 3). Up to 66% of recorded populations of M. integrifolia occurring in remnant vegetation are located in these four RE types (Powell et al. 2010; Powell unpublished data). The majority of the other populations in remnant vegetation are found in riparian RE types or areas mapped as sclerophyll communities where rainforest is subdominant, and its presence is frequently fire mediated (Powell et al. 2014).

A substantial number of populations occur in areas not mapped as remnant vegetation; areas where stands of M. integrifolia have been preserved, but other native vegetation has been cleared.

Table 3. Habitat critical to survival of Macadamia integrifolia

Regional Ecosystem	Short Description	VMA Status¹
12.3.1	Gallery rainforest (notophyll vine forest) on alluvial plains	E
12.8.3	Complex notophyll vine forest on Cainozoic igneous rocks. Altitude <600 m	LC
12.11.10	Notophyll vine forest +/- Araucaria cunninghamii on metamorphics +/- interbedded volcanics	LC
12.12.16	Notophyll vine forest on Mesozoic to Proterozoic igneous rocks	LC

1 VMA Status: status under the Vegetation Management Act 1999 (Qld); E = Endangered, OC = Of Concern; LC = Least Concern

Priority populations

Populations of M. integrifolia have been prioritised using criteria including population size, proximity to other populations (based on pollen transfer distance) and occurrence within remnant vegetation. To account for mapping error, any population mapped as being within 50 m of remnant vegetation is assumed to be located within remnant vegetation.

Table 4. Priority populations of Macadamia integrifolia

Priority	Criteria
VERY HIGH	Populations with at least two neighbouring populations within 3 km AND within 50 m of remnant vegetation AND Population Class 26–49 or greater OR Populations where two Macadamia species are recorded as present
HIGH	Populations with at least two neighbours within 3 km AND within 50 m of remnant vegetation AND Population Class 11–26 or greater OR Populations with at least two neighbours within 3 km AND Population Class 26–49 or greater OR Populations within 50 m of remnant vegetation AND Population Class 26–49 or greater
MEDIUM	All other populations

The known population clusters of M. integrifolia throughout its distribution are summarised in Table 5. Information is provided on the site identifier (Site Id: MGA northing), location, tenure, habitat (cleared, RE number or unknown), population size (Pop Size), and conservation priority (Priority: very high, high or medium).

Table 5. Known populations of Macadamia integrifolia in Australia by geographical cluster

Site ID	Location	Tenure	Habitat	Pop Size	Priority
Bauple Group	–	–	–	–	–
7147288	Bauple	National Park	Non remnant	11–25	High
7146903	Bauple	Private property	12.12.16	11–25	Very high
7145788	Bauple	Private property	Non remnant	6–10	High
7145377	Bauple	Private property	Non remnant	Unknown	High
7145274	Bauple	Private property	Non remnant	6–10	High
7144924	Bauple	Private property	12.12.16	11–25	Very high
7144417	Bauple	Private property	12.12.16	6–10	High
7143588	Bauple	Private property	Non remnant	6–10	High
7143092	Bauple	Private property	12.12.16	1–5	High
Amamoor/Imbil Group	–	–	–	–	–
7096732	Mary Ck	Private property	12.3.7	1–5	High
7096334	Mary Ck	Forest lease area	12.11.10	51–100	Very high
7095930	Mary Ck	Forest lease area	12.11.10	11–25	High
7091012	Amamoor	Private property	Non remnant	6–10	Medium
7090288	Amamoor	Private property	Non remnant	11–25	High
7089787	Eel LA	Forest lease area	12.11.10	26–50	High
7089088	Amamoor	Private property	Non remnant	11–25	High
7088354	Eel LA	Forest lease area	12.11.10	51–100	High
7088145	Amamoor	Forest lease area	12.11.10	51–100	Very high
7088056	Amamoor	Forest lease area	12.11.10	1–5	High
7087676	Eel LA	Forest lease area	12.11.10	6–10	High
7087572	Amamoor	Forest lease area	12.11.10	101–200	Very high
7087413	Amamoor	Forest lease area	12.11.10	11–25	Very high
7086980	Amamoor	Forest lease area	12.11.10	6–10	High
7086840	Amamoor	Forest lease area	12.11.10	1–5	High
7086651	Amamoor	Forest lease area	12.11.3	101–200	Very high
7086609	Amamoor	Road reserve	Hoop	11–25	Very high
7086533	Amamoor	Road reserve	Non remnant	6–10	High
7086162	Amamoor	Forest lease area	12.11.10	1–5	High
7086084	Amamoor	Road reserve	12.3.1	11–25	Very high
7085956	Amamoor	Forest lease area	12.11.10	51–100	Very high
7085906	Amamoor	Private property	12.3.7	26–50	Very high
7085752	Amamoor	Forest lease area	12.11.10	6–10	High
7085501	Amamoor	Private property	Non remnant	51–100	High
7085065	Amamoor	Road reserve	Non remnant	6–10	High
7084904	Amamoor	Forest lease area	12.11.10	101–200	Very high
7084899	Amamoor	Road reserve	12.3.1	6–10	High
7084832	Amamoor	Road reserve	12.3.1	26–50	Very high
7084510	Amamoor	Road reserve	Non remnant	11–25	High
7084352	Amamoor	Road reserve	Hoop	11–25	High
7084288	Amamoor	Reserve	12.11.3a	51–100	Very high
7084194	Amamoor	Forest lease area	Hoop	51–100	High
7084155	Amamoor	Reserve	Non remnant	6–10	High
7083988	Amamoor	Forest lease area	Plant	11–25	Very high
7083698	Amamoor	Private property	Non remnant	51–100	High
7083379	Amamoor	Forest lease area	12.3.1	26–50	Very high
7083322	Amamoor	Road reserve	12.3.1	51–100	Very high
7083103	Amamoor	Forest lease area	12.11.10	11–25	Very high
7083102	Amamoor	Private property	Non remnant	101–200	High
7083016	Amamoor	Private property	12.11.10	1–5	High
7076037	Mitchell Ck	Forest lease area	12.3.1	11–25	High
7075098	Mitchell Ck	Forest lease area	12.3.1	11–25	Very high
7073740	Mitchell Ck	National Park	12.11.3	11–25	Very high
7073389	Mitchell Ck	Forest lease area	12.11.10	11–25	Very high
Blackall Range/Dulong Group	–	–	–	–	–
7061290	Dulong	Private property	Non remnant	51–100	High
7052081	Dulong	National Park	12.8.3	11–25	Very high
7051640	Keils Mountain	Private property	Non remnant	Unknown	Medium
7051381	Dulong	Unknown	12.12.2	6–10	Medium
7051208	Dulong	Reserve	Non remnant	11–25	Very high
Samford/Pine Rivers Group
7016689	Villeneuve	Private property	Non remnant	11–25	High
7015188	Upper Caboolture	Private property	12.9–10.4	11–25	High
7004689	Campbells Pocket	Public land	Non remnant	6–10	Very high
6994689	No details	Public land	Non remnant	6–10	Very high
6993389	No details	Private property	Non remnant	1–5	Medium
6991789	Terrors Ck	Private property	12.3.1	1–5	High
6975713	Samford	Private property	Non remnant	11–25	Medium
6972817	Olson's Scrub	Private property	12.12.16	51–100	Very high
6972689	Samford	Public land	Non remnant	1–5	Medium
6970589	Mt Nebo	Private property	Non remnant	6–10	Very high
6970196	Samford	Private property	Non remnant	11–25	High
Southern Group
6956478	Carindale	Public land	Non remnant	1–5	High
6947895	Little Eprapah Ck	Unknown	Non remnant	6–10	High
6945789	No details	Public land	12.3.1	6–10	High
6945289	Mt Cotton	Private property	Non remnant	11–25	High
6931076	Logan	Private property	12.11.10	11–25	Very high
6929989	Belivah Scrub	Private property	Non remnant	6–10	High
6929959	Bahrs Scrub	Reserve	12.11.10	Unknown	High
6929538	Bahrs Scrub	Reserve	12.11.10	Unknown	High
6924746	Ormeau	Unknown	12.11.10	Unknown	High
6922689	Ormeau	Private property	12.11.5a	1–5	High
6922289	Ormeau	Public land	Non remnant	11–25	High
6921289	Ormeau	Public land	Non remnant	1–5	High
6921251	Willow Vale	Private property	Non remnant	1–5	High
6920568	Willow Vale	Public land	Non remnant	1–5	High
6920357	Willow Vale	Private property	Non remnant	51–100	High
6920033	Willow Vale	Private property	Non remnant	1–5	High
6919726	Ormeau	Reserve	12.11.3	11–25	Very high
6919556	Ormeau	Reserve	12.11.10	51–75	Very high
6915819	Wongawallen	Private property	Non remnant	–	Very high
6912305	Tamborine	Reserve	12.11.3	11–25	Very high
6909789	Tamborine	Public land	Non remnant	6–10	Very high
6909203	Tamborine	Reserve	12.3.1	1–5	Very high
6908649	Tamborine	Reserve	12.11.5a	1–5	High
6901633	Beechmont	Reserve	12.11.3a	51–75	Very high
6897613	Beechmont	Unknown	12.11.1	Unknown	High
6897436	Beechmont	Unknown	Non remnant	1–5	High
6896351	Beechmont	Unknown	Non remnant	51–100	High
6896020	Beechmont	Unknown	Non remnant	6–10	High
6895809	Beechmont	Unknown	Non remnant	11–25	High
6890812	No details	Private property	Non remnant	11–25	High
6889817	Beechmont	Reserve	Non remnant	6–10	High
6886668	Bonogin	Reserve	Non remnant	26–50	High
6882602	Nicholls Scrub	National Park	Non remnant	6–10	High

Macadamia jansenii (Bulburin nut tree)

Description

Macadamia jansenii is a small, single or multi-stemmed tree up to 12 m tall (Shapcott and Powell 2011), with generally smooth bark dotted with prominent lenticels (Halford 1997, cited in Costello et al. 2009). The oblanceolate to oblong-elliptic leaves are generally arranged in whorls of three, are 10–18 cm long with an acute apex, tapered base and wavy margins (Harden et al. 2006). Net venation on leaf blades is distinct on both surfaces, especially when held up to the light. Petioles are 2–14 mm long. The cream-brown flowers have tepals that are 7–9 mm long; flowers have been observed in July and September. The globose fruit are 20–25 mm in diameter. Nut shells are thin and smooth and contain a mildly cyanogenic, inedible kernel. Surveys coordinated by the University of the Sunshine Coast in 2019 found almost all plants larger than 1 m in height were multi-stemmed, with larger plants having up to 25 stems/trunks (G. Hayward, 2019, pers. comm. 13 Nov).

Life history and ecology

Very little is known about the life history and ecology of this species. It is thought that M. janensii is pollinated by native bees and seed dispersed by vertebrates (Gross and Weston 1992). Most mature individuals are multi-stemmed (G. Hayward, 2019, pers. comm. 13 Nov), suggesting that the species may facultatively re-sprout in response to fire or localised flooding.

Whilst the susceptibility of M. jansenii to fire is not known, commercial Macadamias are sensitive to fire (O’Hare et al. 2004), causing concern for M. jansenii when wildfires came within 10 km of M. jansenii habitat in late 2018 (ABC 2018).

Distribution

Endemic to the northern part of the SEQ bioregion, M. jansenii is known only from a 4000 m² area restricted to the upper catchment of Granite Creek in Bulburin National Park, within which the area of occupancy is 16 km² (G. Hayward, 2019, pers. comm. 13 Nov).

In 2018, surveys conducted by Keith Sarnadsky on behalf of the Macadamia Conservation Trust located an additional 37 mature trees and associated juveniles, expanding the known habitat along a narrow 6 km reach within the same catchment (MCT 2019).

Follow-up surveys in 2019 by Glenn Hayward and Alison Shapcott (University of the Sunshine Coast) and Liang Ansel Lee (University of Queensland), found 193 plants, 56 of which were less than 1 m in height (G. Hayward, 2019, pers. comm. 13 Nov).

Habitat critical to the survival of the species

Macadamia jansenii is found on alluvial terraces of a second order watercourse and on adjacent steep, rocky slopes at about 150 m above sea level, where it occurs on well drained, red brown, sandy clay loams (Gross and Weston 1992; Shapcott and Powell 2011). All known individuals are found within 20 m of a tributary of Granite Creek, Bulburin National Park. Macadamia jansenii is identified as occurring in Regional Ecosystem 12.12.13 (see Table 6). This form of simple notophyll vine forest is characterised by Araucaria cunninghamii (Hoop pine), Alangium villosum (Canary muskheart), Argyrodendron trifoliolatum (Brown tulip oak), Baloghia inophylla (Scrub bloodwood), Brachychiton discolor (Scrub bottletree), Dendrocnide photinophylla (Shiny-leaved stinging tree) and Harpullia pendula (Tulipwood).

Priority populations

The only known population of M. jansenii is summarised in Table 6. This is potentially comprised of up to four subpopulations; however, this cannot be confirmed until genetic analyses are completed (G. Hayward, 2019, pers. comm. 13 Nov). Information is provided on the site identifier (Site Id: MGA northing), location, tenure, habitat (cleared, RE number or unknown; population size (Pop Size), and conservation priority (very high, high or medium).

Table 6. Known populations of Macadamia jansenii in Australia

Site Id	Location	Tenure	Habitat	Pop Size	Priority
7208293	Bulburin NP, southwest Miriam Vale	National Park	12.12.13	193	Very high

Macadamia ternifolia (Gympie nut)

Description

Macadamia ternifolia is a perennial lower to mid-storey evergreen subtropical rainforest tree to 18 m tall, with brown branchlets dotted with raised lenticels (Hauser and Blok 1992). The simple, narrow-oblong to narrow-elliptical leaves are arranged in whorls of three, and 10–12 cm long; new growth is pinkish red. Blade tips are pointed and the base tapers to petioles 3–13 mm long (Stanley and Ross 2002). Axillary pinkish or cream flowers are arranged in brush-like hanging racemes 4–20 cm long. Compressed rounded fruits are greyish, 1.5–2 cm long with a thin, hard inner shell protecting the nut. The seed kernel is cyanogenic and not edible. Flowering period is June to August with fruiting occurring from March to April.

Life history and ecology

Total population size is estimated to be between 1,500–2,500 mature individuals. Very little is known about the life history and ecology of this species. Both introduced European honey and native bees appear to be the main pollinators, with native bees being superior pollinators. Seed dispersal is by small rodents and streams (Barry and Thomas 1994, cited in DoE 2019b) and trees can live for over 100 years, with a juvenile period of six years (Queensland CRA/RFA Steering Committee 1997, cited in DoE 2019b).

No information is available on the species’ susceptibility to fire, however, the known sensitivity of commercial Macadamias (O’Hare et al. 2004), suggests application of the precautionary principle.

Distribution

Macadamia ternifolia is endemic to southern coastal Queensland, with a known national distribution of scattered populations extending from Goomboorian (north of Gympie), south to Mt Nebo northwest of Brisbane. Macadamia ternifolia is found within lowland warm complex notophyll vine forest and Araucarian notophyll vine forest predominantly on basic and intermediate volcanics and alluvia 15–700 m above sea level (ASL) in higher rainfall areas. This species occupies a range of topographic positions, including scree slopes, foot slopes, gullies, benches and riverine terraces. Soils are alluvial or volcanic derived basaltic krasnozems, well drained, with significant surface exposure of rock fragments. In the remnant landscape, M. ternifolia is frequently found in riparian RE types (Powell et al. 2014). The majority of extant M. ternifolia populations are located on the scarps of the Maleny Plateau extending along the Blackall Range predominantly in riparian habitats draining into coastal lowlands to the east and south or the Mary Valley to the west. A cluster of populations is located on the Conondale Ranges west of the Mary River at approximately 600 m ASL (Powell unpublished data). A finger of populations extends northward along coastal foothills to Goomboorian, a distance of approximately 50 km. Macadamia ternifolia is also found in the Sunshine Coast suburb of Buderim and the Brisbane suburbs of Samford Valley and Mt Nebo. Typically, populations are small and tend to occur in clusters within the forest matrix or along riparian zones.

The occupied habitat is approximately 1,350 ha and the modelled extent of available habitat is approximately 22,000 ha within an area of 3,100 km². The total population is found within approximately 60 key locations with 5–25 mature specimens at each. Significant population clusters occur in the north from Goomboorian to Cooroy; the centre of the species range in the Blackall Range, Maleny and Buderim; in the Conondale Ranges and west of Kenilworth; and Samford Valley/ Mt Nebo in the south. Further surveys will improve knowledge of population size and distribution.

Habitat critical to the survival of the species

Macadamia ternifolia is found in several rainforest regional ecosystems including complex and simple notophyll vine forest and simple microphyll-notophyll vine forest with emergent Araucaria and Argyrodendron. Macadamia ternifolia is identified in the Queensland Herbarium REDD as occurring in endangered RE 12.3.1 (see Table 7), though it is also frequently found in RE 12.8.3, 12.11.10, 12.12.1 and 12.12.16 (Powell unpublished data).

Priority populations

Prioritisation of populations has been assessed using the same criteria as those used for M. integrifolia. The site identifier (Site Id: MGA northing), location, tenure, habitat, population size (Pop Size), and the priority (very high, high or medium) of known population clusters of M. ternifolia throughout its distribution is summarised in Table 7.

Table 7. Known populations of Macadamia ternifolia in Australia by geographical cluster

Site ID	Location	Tenure	Habitat	Pop Size	Priority
Northern Group	-	-	-	-	-
7117921	Goomboorian	Private property	Regrowth	11–25	Medium
7107639	Wolvi	Private property	12.11.16	26–50	High
7098488	Beenham Range	Private property	Regrowth	6–10	Medium
7097408	Gympie	Private property	Regrowth	11–25	High
7089202	Mt Pinbarren	National Park	12.8.13	1–5	Medium
7081477	Skyring Ck	Private property	12.3.2	1–5	Medium
7076845	Mt Cooroy	Reserve	12.8.13	1–5	Medium
7076193	Cooroy	Reserve	12.8.13	11–25	High
7073901	Eerwah Vale	Private property	12.11.10/12.11.2	11–25	Medium
Blackall Range/Maleny/Buderim Group	-	-	-	-	-
7063183	Maroochy River	Unknown	12.12.14	Unknown	Medium
7063181	Maroochy River	Unknown	12.12.14	Unknown	Medium
7062218	Yandina	Unknown	Regrowth	1–5	Medium
7061731	Kureelpa	Unknown	Regrowth	1–5	Medium
7058977	Maroochy River	Unknown	12.3.1	6–10	Medium
7057490	Kureelpa	Unknown	12.8.3	1–5	Medium
7056837	Maroochy River	Unknown	12.3.1	Unknown	Medium
7056817	Maroochy River	Unknown	Regrowth	Unknown	Medium
7056691	Maroochy River	Unknown	12.9–10.17d	1–5	Medium
7055983	Mapleton	Private property	12.12.16/12.12.1	11–25	High
7055705	Mapleton	Unknown	12.12.2	1–5	Medium
7055102	Kureelpa	Unknown	Non remnant	6–10	Medium
7054520	Mapleton	Unknown	12.8.8	1–5	Medium
7053231	Huntingdale	Unknown	12.3.2	6–10	Medium
7052999	Flaxton	Private property	12.8.3	11–25	High
7052853	Mary River	Unknown	12.12.1	Unknown	Medium
7052238	Kenilworth	National Park	12.11.10/12.11.1	6–10	Medium
7052156	Kenilworth	National Park	12.11.10	1–5	Medium
7052104	Woombye	National Park	12.8.3	11–25	Very high
7052050	Woombye	Unknown	12.12.1	Unknown	Very high
7052006	Woombye	Unknown	12.12.1	11–25	Very high
7051870	Kenilworth	National Park	12.11.10/12.11.1	11–25	High
7051767	Mapleton	Unknown	12.12.2	1–5	Medium
7051581	Woombye	Unknown	12.12.15	Unknown	Very high
7051471	Woombye	Reserve	12.12.1/12.12.16	11–25	Very high
7051381	Woombye	Unknown	12.12.2	1–5	Medium
7051204	Woombye	Unknown	12.9–10.14	6–10	Medium
7050788	Woombye	Unknown	Non remnant	6–10	Medium
7050722	Woombye	Unknown	12.3.2	6–10	Medium
7050267	Mary River	Unknown	Non remnant	Unknown	Medium
7050023	Woombye	Unknown	12.8.3	1–5	Medium
7049928	Woombye	Unknown	12.11.2	Unknown	Medium
7049867	Woombye	Unknown	12.5.2	1–5	Medium
7049153	Woombye	Unknown	12.8.3	1–5	Medium
7048444	Maroochydore	Private property	12.8.3	1–5	Medium
7048413	Buderim	Unknown	Non remnant	1–5	Medium
7048407	Buderim	Unknown	12.8.3	6–10	Medium
7047287	Maleny	Unknown	Non remnant	Unknown	Medium
7042645	Maleny	Unknown	12.12.15a	1–5	Medium
7042237	Maleny	Unknown	12.8.3	Unknown	Medium
7041720	Mooloolabah	Private property	12.3.2	51–100	Very high
7041637	Maleny	Unknown	12.8.3	Unknown	Medium
7040178	Maleny	Unknown	12.9–10.17d	1–5	Medium
7039400	Mooloolah River	Unknown	12.8.3	6–10	Medium
7037856	Maleny	Reserve	12.8.3	26–50	High
7037562	Maleny	Unknown	12.8.3	Unknown	Medium
7037434	Maleny	National Park	12.3.1	26–50	High
7037277	Maleny	National Park	12.8.3	1–5	Medium
7037115	Maleny	Unknown	12.8.3	Unknown	Medium
7037099	Maleny	National Park	12.9–10.16	26–50	High
7035508	Maleny	Reserve	12.12.16/12.12.1	26–50	Very high
7035460	Maleny	Unknown	12.3.1	6–10	Medium
7034844	Maleny	Unknown	12.9–10.16	1–5	Medium
7033713	Maleny	Private property	12.12.16/12.12.1	11–25	High
7033541	Stanley River	Unknown	12.12.16/12.12.1	Unknown	Medium
7032502	Maleny	Unknown	Non remnant	Unknown	Medium
Conondale/Kenilworth West Group	-	-	-	-	-
7064410	Kenilworth	Forest lease area	12.11.10/12.11.3	1–5	Medium
7062348	Kenilworth	Forest lease area	12.3.1	6–10	Medium
7061868	Kenilworth	Forest lease area	12.11.1	1–5	Medium
7061458	Kenilworth	National Park	12.3.1	11–25	High
7059446	Kenilworth	Forest lease area	12.3.1	6–10	Medium
7059191	Kenilworth	Forest lease area	12.3.1	6–10	Medium
7057075	Conondale	Unknown	12.11.3	Unknown	Medium
7056538	Conondale	Unknown	12.11.10	1–5	Medium
7055837	Kenilworth	Forest lease area	12.11.3	11–25	High
7053653	Conondale	Unknown	12.11.10/12.11.1	1–5	Medium
7052891	Conondale	National Park	12.11.3/12.11.2	26–50	Very high
7052303	Conondale	Unknown	12.11.10	Unknown	Medium
7049120	Mary River	Unknown	12.11.2	Unknown	Medium
7047002	Conondale	National Park	12.11.9/12.11.3	11–25	Very high
7046781	Mary River	Unknown	12.11.1	Unknown	Medium
7046568	Conondale	National Park	12.11.9/12.11.3	26–50	Very high
7046208	Nambour	Unknown	12.11.2/12.11.1	Unknown	Medium
Southern Group	-	-	-	-	-
7022865	Woodford	Private property	Non remnant	11–25	Medium
7022688	Woodford	Unknown	Non remnant	6–10	Medium
7004689	Campbells Pocket	Reserve	Non remnant	6–10	Very high
6995309	Burpengary	Reserve	12.3.1	11–25	Medium
6994689	Moorina	Reserve	Non remnant	11–25	Very high
6974489	Draper	Private property	Non remnant	1–5	Medium
6972817	Mt Nebo	Private property	12.12.16	51–100	Very high
6970589	Mt Nebo	Private property	Non remnant	11–25	Very high
6969825	Mt Nebo	Private property	12.12.15	26–50	Very high
6969080	Mt Nebo	National Park	12.11.10	11–25	Very high

Macadamia tetraphylla (Rough-shelled bush nut)

Description

Macadamia tetraphylla is a perennial mid-storey evergreen subtropical rainforest tree to 18 m tall, with greyish-brown branchlets dotted with pale elongated lenticels (Hauser and Blok 1992). The simple oblong lanceolate leaves are usually arranged in whorls of four, 6–20 cm long and 2–4 cm wide. Blade tips are pointed, margins sharply serrated and petioles are 2–8 mm long (Stanley and Ross 2002). New leaves of M. tetraphylla are bright red in colour, whereas those of M. integrifolia are light green. Axillary pinkish purple flowers are arranged in brush-like hanging racemes 15–45 cm long. Compressed rounded fruits are greyish-green, 2–3.5 cm wide with a hard-inner rough surfaced shell protecting the edible kernel. Flowering period is August to September with fruit maturing and falling from March (Hauser and Blok 1992).

Life history and ecology

Little is known about the life history and ecology of this species. Pollination is thought to be principally carried out by native and European bees with seed dispersal by small rodents and gravity fall, probably with some assistance from local stream flooding. Pollen and seed dispersal leading to hybridisation has been observed between wild M. tetraphylla and cultivated M. integrifolia (O’Connor et al. 2015).

A study into the breeding system and fecundity of M. tetraphylla (Pisanu et al. 2009) found that the species had a low fruit to flower ratio and that the species was weakly self-compatible but incapable of self-pollination. Pisanu et al. (2009) identified a lack of light and competition with other more rapidly growing rainforest limits flower production, whilst insect pests and high seed predation, limits seed production and germination. An optimal outbreeding distance of 2 km was identified but the authors concluded that many wild populations do not have conspecifics at optimal distances owing to habitat fragmentation.

Macadamia tetraphylla has moderate to high genetic diversity recorded within the species and its populations, however, relatively low genetic differentiation between populations has been recorded at a regional scale (Peace 2005). Spain and Lowe (2011) investigated the genetics of six wild M. tetraphylla populations, finding a lack of genetic structure among adults. However, in the juvenile cohort, genetic differentiation and relatively high inbreeding scores were identified. The observed patterns were positively correlated with density of adult individuals consistent with the clumped distribution pattern of individuals commonly observed in small fragments (Pisanu 2001).

No information is available on the susceptibility of M. tetraphylla to fire, however, the known sensitivity of commercial Macadamias (O’Hare 2004), suggests application of the precautionary principle.

Distribution

Macadamia tetraphylla is endemic to eastern Australia, with a known national distribution of scattered populations extending from Mt Cotton south of Brisbane to the Richmond River in northern NSW at an altitudinal range of 30–800 m ASL. Much of the habitat in which it naturally occurs has been almost entirely cleared, significantly altering the original pattern of distribution of the species.

In NSW, the extant distribution of M. tetraphylla is:

in the Tweed Valley, on the slopes and along tributaries draining Wollumbin (Mount Warning) and in the Border Ranges from the coast to Numinbah

within the area of the former Big Scrub, including the western and southern foot slopes of the Nightcap Ranges and Whian Whian State Forest, extending north along the east facing slopes and foothills and adjacent lowland areas of Mt Jerusalem National Park to Mooball

a cluster of populations occurs on the southern scarp of the Alstonville Plateau near Dalwood.

In Queensland, the range of M. tetraphylla extends north from the border with NSW along the coastal ranges and valleys to Mt Cotton south east of Brisbane; a distance of approximately 40 km.

Across its range a relatively large number of M. tetraphylla individuals are located in or adjacent to road reserves in disturbed landscapes dominated by the weed tree species camphor laurel (Cinnamomum camphora); these individuals are potentially important in maintaining connectivity among populations. In addition, M. tetraphylla was frequently inter-planted with banana trees in early banana plantations and survive in the recovering landscape where agricultural activities have long been abandoned.

The occupied habitat is approximately 750 ha, and the modelled extent of available habitat is approximately 48,000 ha within an area of 2,400 km². Total population size is estimated to be between 1,500–3,000 mature individuals within approximately 60 key populations with 10–100 mature specimens at each locality. Further surveys will improve knowledge of population size and distribution.

Habitat critical to the survival of the species

Macadamia tetraphylla is found in several vegetation communities, including complex notophyll vine forest, littoral rainforest and wet sclerophyll forests. In Queensland, M. tetraphylla is identified in the Queensland Herbarium REDD as occurring in three Least Concern (VMA 1999) rainforest regional ecosystems (RE 12.8.3, 12.11.10 and 12.12.16). In NSW, M. tetraphylla is categorised as a site-managed species under the DPIE Saving our Species Program and occurs in the following seven vegetation classes and four Endangered Ecological Communities (BCA 2016):

NSW Vegetation Class

- Coastal Floodplain Wetlands

- Coastal Swamp Forests

- Dry Rainforests

- Littoral Rainforests

- North Coast Wet Sclerophyll Forests

- Northern Escarpment Wet Sclerophyll Forests

- Subtropical Rainforests

NSW Endangered Ecological Community

- Subtropical Coastal Floodplain Forest of the New South Wales North Coast Bioregion

- Littoral Rainforest in the New South Wales North Coast, Sydney Basin and South East Corner Bioregions

- Lowland Rainforest in the NSW North Coast and Sydney Basin Bioregions

- Lowland Rainforest on Floodplain in the New South Wales North Coast Bioregion

Priority populations

Prioritisation of populations was undertaken using the same criteria as that for M. integrifolia. A summary of known population clusters of M. tetraphylla throughout its distribution is summarised in Table 8; data includes the site identifier (Site Id: MGA northing), location, tenure, habitat, population size, and the priority (very high, high or medium). There are areas of range overlap between M. tetraphylla and M. integrifolia, with a significant number of sites occupied by both species and hybridisation occurring between species (Peace 2005). NSW DPIE Saving our Species Program has identified one site, Wollumbin National Park, as a key management site for M. tetraphylla.

Table 8. Known populations of Macadamia tetraphylla in Australia by geographical cluster

Site ID	Location	Tenure	Habitat	Pop Size	Priority
Northern Group (QLD)	-	-	-	-	-
6915819	Wongawallan	Private property	Non remnant	26–50	Very high
6910421	Eagle Heights	Reserve	12.11.10	6–10	Medium
6909789	Guanaba River Park	Reserve	Non remnant	12–25	Very high
6909566	Beenleigh	Reserve	12.3.7a	Unknown	Medium
6909203	Guanaba	Reserve	12.3.1/12.3.2	1–5	Medium
6903289	Clagiraba Creek	Private property	Non remnant	1–5	Medium
6901633	Clagiraba	Reserve	12.11.3a	51–75	Very high
6896799	Beechmont	Public land	Non remnant	11–25	Medium
6896061	Beechmont	Public land	Non remnant	11–25	Medium
6893046	Beechmont	Public land	Non remnant	11–25	Medium
6890589	Beechmont	Private property	12.8.3/12.8.4	1–5	Very high
6887900	Bonogin	Public land	12.11.3	6–10	Medium
6887520	Beechmont	Unknown	Non remnant	6–10	Medium
6886990	Beechmont	Unknown	Non remnant	1–5	Medium
6886668	Bonogin	Reserve	-	26–50	Very high
6885935	Numinbah	Reserve	-	26–50	High
6884259	Austinville Rd	Public land	12.11.1	6–10	Medium
6881627	Tallebudgera_1	Public land	12.3.2/12.3.1	11–25	High
6881104	Tallebudgera_3	Public land	Dist	1–5	Medium
6881045	Austinville CA	Reserve	12.8.3	6–10	Medium
6880866	Murwillumbah	Unknown	12.8.3	Unknown	Medium
6880024	Currumbin Ck Rd	Public land	-	11–25	Very high
6879986	Tallebudgera _2	Private property	Non remnant	6–10	Medium
6879510	Natural Bridge	Private property	Non remnant	26–50	High
6879231	Beechmont	Unknown	12.8.8	26–50	Very high
6878209	Currumbin	Private property	Non remnant	1–5	Medium
6877577	Currumbin	Public land	Non remnant	6–10	Medium
6877226	Natural Bridge	Reserve	12.8.3	11–25	High
6876747	Currumbin	Public land	Non remnant	1–5	Medium
6876331	Currumbin	Reserve	12.11.1	Unknown	Medium
6875689	Springbrook	Reserve	12.8.3	12–25	High
Wollumbin (Mount Warning) Group	-	-	-	-	-
6882033	Murwillumbah	Unknown	12.11.1	Unknown	Medium
6881194	Bilambil Heights	Private property	Non remnant	11–25	Medium
6878989	Terranora	Private property	Subtropical rainforest	11–25	High
6877789	Banora Pt	Public land	Not assessed	6–10	Medium
6876942	Duroby	Private property	Early regrowth RF	11–25	Medium
6876798	Bilambil	Private property	Subtropical rainforest	1–5	Medium
6876711	Bilambil	Private property	Brush Box open forest	1–5	Medium
6876161	Bilambil	Private property	Non remnant	11–25	Medium
6876088	Duroby	Public land	Non remnant	11–25	Medium
6875592	Bilambil	Reserve	Subtropical rainforest	61–75	High
6875576	Bilambil	Private property	26–50	High
6875151	Upper Duroby	Private property	Non remnant	11–25	Medium
6874389	Hogans Scrub	Public land	Moist forest/rainforest	6–10	Medium
6872321	Chillingham	Private property	Brush Box open forest	26–50	Very high
6872310	Couchy Ck	Public land	Non remnant	11–25	Medium
6871389	Couchy Ck	Public land	Non remnant	11–25	Medium
6870474	Limpinwood	Private property	Non remnant	26–50	Medium
6868009	Chillingham	Private property	Non remnant	1–5	Medium
6867889	Limpinwood NR	Reserve	Rainforest/riparian	6–10	Medium
6867689	Limpinwood Rd	Public land	Eucalypt open forest	11–25	Medium
6867243	Crystal Creek	Private property	Not assessed	51–75	High
6866730	Crystal Creek	Private property	Early regrowth RF	101–200	Very high
6866426	Tyalgum	Private property	Early regrowth RF	101–200	Very high
6864389	Eungella	Private property	Non remnant	11–25	Medium
6860189	Mt Warning Rd	Private property	Non remnant	11–25	Medium
6859489	Sia School	Private property	Eucalypt open forest	11–25	High
6859089	Wollumbin	Private property	Eucalypt open forest	11–25	High
6856689	Uki	Private property	Non remnant	11–25	Medium
6856389	Uki	Private property	Non remnant	26–50	High
6855989	Cedar Ck 1	Private property	Rainforest/riparian	6–10	Medium
6855889	Cedar Ck 2	Private property	Rainforest/riparian	6–10	Medium
Central Group	-	-	-	-	-
6854689	Mooball	Private property	Non remnant	11–25	Medium
6849989	Inner Pocket NR	Reserve	Moist eucalypt forest	6–10	Medium
6849289	Blindmouth	Private property	Moist eucalypt forest	11–25	Medium
6849110	Billynudgel	Private property	Moist eucalypt forest	26–50	High
6845178	Main Arm	Public land	Not assessed	1–5	Medium
6843889	Brunswick Heads	Reserve	Coastal complex	6–10	Medium
6842289	Mullumbimby Ck	Private property	Not assessed	11–25	Medium
6841989	Mullumbimby Ck	Private property	Not assessed	11–25	Medium
6841489	Mullumbimby Ck	Private property	Not assessed	11–25	Medium
6837789	Nimbin	Public land	-	1–5	Medium
6837185	Mullumbimby	Public land	-	1–5	Medium
6836889	Tuntable Ck Rd	Public land	-	1–5	Medium
6836399	Lismore	Private property	-	11–25	Medium
6836270	Upper Coopers Ck	Private property	Moist forest complex	11–25	Medium
6836089	Upper Coopers Ck	Private property	-	1–5	Medium
6834280	Goonengerry	Public land	-	1–5	Medium
6834089	Tuntable Ck Rd	Private property	-	11–25	Medium
6833389	Minyon Falls FR	Reserve	Moist forest complex	11–25	High
6831489	The Channon	Private property	-	11–25	Medium
6829589	Dorroughby	Private property	-	1–5	Medium
Southern Group	-	-	-	-	-
6814998	Tintenbar	Private property	-	11–25	Medium
6814050	Tintenbar	Private property	-	61–75	Medium
6813577	Lennox Head	Private property	-	6–10	Medium
6813289	Lennox Head	Public land	-	11–25	Medium
6812289	Lennox Head	Private property	-	11–25	Medium
6812189	Wollongbar	Public land	-	6–10	Medium
6811285	Alstonville	Private property	-	6–10	Medium
6807575	Alstonville	Private property	-	11–25	Medium
6806785	Alstonville	Reserve	Subtropical rainforest	11–25	Medium
6803113	Dalwood	Private property	Subtropical rainforest	26–50	High
6802932	Alstonville	Reserve	Subtropical rainforest	12–25	Medium
6802759	Dalwood	Private property	Subtropical rainforest	26–50	High
6800889	South Ballina	Private property	-	11–25	Medium

Threats

Biology and ecology relevant to threats

Habitat loss and fragmentation

The long-term impacts of land clearing and habitat fragmentation are underlying factors contributing to the threatened status of Macadamia species. This is exacerbated by ongoing clearing of remnant bushland throughout south east Queensland and north east NSW for horticulture, agriculture, urban and industrial development and associated infrastructure.

The extent of land clearing in some areas of Macadamia habitat has dire consequences for long term persistence of Macadamia species in those areas. Approximately 80% of the Regional Ecosystem communities, most frequently occupied by M. integrifolia and M. ternifolia in Queensland within core areas of their respective ranges, have been cleared (Powell et al. 2014). Depending on the Macadamia species, between 30% and 50% of recorded populations in Queensland occur in areas that are either cleared or are patches of remnant vegetation too small in area to be included in 1:50,000 (SEQ) or 1:100,000 (non-SEQ) regional ecosystem mapping undertaken by the Queensland Herbarium. In NSW, almost the entire extent of the former Big Scrub, thought to comprise the core range for M. tetraphylla, was cleared in the 19th and early 20th centuries (Floyd 1990). Most extant populations of M. tetraphylla occur along the fringes of this area and the foot slopes of Wollumbin (Mount Warning) and its caldera.

Whilst a number of populations of Macadamia occur in protected tenures, such as National Parks and Conservation Reserves, many populations are located on private land. The loss of individual trees or small populations from private land particularly is difficult to detect, reducing the effectiveness of the legislative protection afforded to Macadamia species by State and Commonwealth governments. A relatively large number of Macadamias occur as a single or few individuals in paddocks (left for their edible nuts when the land was cleared), in roadside remnants, or in gullies and scarps too steep to be cleared. These scattered individuals and small populations may have an important role in maintaining connectivity among the population network for each species; ensuring the long-term persistence of these populations, however, is problematic.

Documented impacts of habitat fragmentation on Macadamia species include weed invasion, reduced frequency of optimal outbreeding distance among populations, genetic isolation of populations, and genetic population differentiation resulting in increased population divergence and likely eventual loss of genetic variation in future generations (Pisanu et al. 2009; Spain and Lowe 2011). Fragmented habitat areas are also likely to be more susceptible to fire. Populations in smaller fragments have been shown to have higher reproduction relative to those within intact habitats due to higher availability of resources, especially light (Neal et al. 2010), however, it is thought that these benefits are outweighed by more pervasive threats of isolation and weed invasion (Pisanu et al. 2009). Moreover, Spain and Lowe (2011) found that levels of inbreeding in juveniles in M. tetraphylla populations was related to adult trees density which are higher within small fragments relative to those within intact forests. They speculate that higher levels of seedling establishment and survival in disturbed habitats may lead to higher levels of inbreeding in those habitats.

Land clearance is a Listed Key Threatening Process under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth).

Small population size

Genetic drift, loss of genetic diversity, inbreeding depression, factors affecting reproductive success, and ability to sustain critical population size all affect the viability of threatened species populations (Lindenmayer and Burgman 2005). When population size is reduced, genetic diversity can be reduced and population viability compromised, sometimes resulting in inbreeding as has been found in small, isolated populations of M. tetraphylla (Spain and Lowe 2011). Some species can tolerate high levels of inbreeding without loss of the ability to reproduce. Even so, small plant populations are still vulnerable to single disturbance events such as wildfire, drought, disease or heavy weed incursion.

The Macadamia species in this Plan occur primarily in small populations, however, considerable debate surrounds what constitutes a viable population in species with naturally small and spatially diffuse populations. In the case of Macadamias, habitat models predict that the species likely occupied contiguous areas of suitable habitat prior to arrival of Europeans and clearing. Limited dispersal ability and the patchy spatial pattern of rainforest communities in the landscape, however, especially in riparian systems, meant that populations were naturally small and patchily distributed in the landscape.

All Macadamia species can maintain themselves via coppicing, reducing the rate of loss of genetic diversity due to drift in small populations and partly explaining why Macadamias have retained relatively high levels of genetic diversity despite apparently naturally small population sizes. The effects of drift are likely to be slowly realised given the long generation times. Drift will lead to a loss of alleles and random differentiation between populations.

Macadamia populations could potentially maintain genetic diversity within fragmented small populations via gene flow due to pollen exchange if there is sufficient connectivity among populations within the landscape matrix. Interpopulation gene flow via pollen of 2.8 km has been documented for M. integrifolia (Neal 2007). Nearest neighbour distance calculations among recorded Macadamia populations show that for each species, many populations are located within 3 km of their two nearest neighbours, especially those located within areas of clusters of populations. Macadamia species appear to maintain themselves via a meta-population structure rather than acting as isolated independent populations.

Whilst pollen exchange between close populations may assist with maintaining genetic diversity, the available data for wild Macadamia species suggest that reproduction is inhibited by a lack of pollinators (Neal 2007; Pisanu et al. 2009). Macadamias are weakly self-compatible, but not capable of autogamy, i.e., they require a pollinator to effect fertilisation; further, outcrossed pollen results in greater seed production (Pisanu et al. 2009). The combined impact of these three factors is to limit seed production by Macadamias. When compounded by the impact of abundant seed predators, such as rats, the result is very low seed germination; this was evident in surveys of wild populations across SEQ undertaken for the Macadamia Conservation Trust during 2015–16 (L. Gould pers. comm. 2017). Further surveys and long-term monitoring are required to understand the likely impact on population persistence.

Macadamias belong to a group of regional subtropical rainforest tree species that produce large hard-shelled seeds and have limited dispersal ability (Rossetto et al. 2008). Whilst in-situ Macadamia populations may be able to maintain themselves in a fragmented landscape better than some other species, there is less evidence that populations are able to be recolonised or restored by neighbouring populations (typical of a meta-population structure). Actions which enhance or at least maintain connectivity between populations and facilitate pollinator movement, may improve interpopulation gene flow through pollen exchange, potentially mitigating some of the impacts of habitat loss and fragmentation (though as noted above, this may not be sufficient to redress the compounded effects of poor germination).

Weed species

Weeds can displace native flora, compete for resources (such as pollinators, light, nutrients and water) and create habitats that are conducive to other exotic species. They can also alter the composition of vegetation communities, patterns of pollination and native seed dispersal. The interface between bushland and other land uses is particularly susceptible to the spread of exotic species that flourish in this altered environment.

Weed species that pose a direct and significant threat to Macadamia habitats are lantana (Lantana camara) and exotic vines such as cat’s claw creeper (Dolichandra unguis-cati) and Madeira vine (Anredera cordifolia). All three species were introduced to Australia as garden plant and are now classified as weeds of national significance (WoNS). Cat’s claw creeper and Madeira vine pose a significant medium-term threat to Macadamia species as they have the capacity to invade and establish within intact rainforest, forming a thick groundcover overwhelming understorey vegetation and eventually growing to canopy level, progressively smothering and collapsing mature trees. Currently, effective control is limited to mechanical and chemical methods that are expensive, requires specific knowledge about the site and a commitment to regular, long-term follow up. Biological controls for all species have been found and released, however, in most cases it will take years before their effectiveness can be properly assessed (Morin et al. 2009).

Loss and degradation of native plant and animal habitat by invasion of escaped garden plants, including aquatic plants is a Listed Key Threatening Process under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth). Weeds are identified as a Key Threatening Process under the Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016 (NSW).

Invasion of native plant communities by Chrysanthemoides monilifera (Bitou bush and boneseed) is a key threatening process under the Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 (NSW). Macadamia tetraphylla is thought to be at risk from this weed (DECC 2006).

Fire

Rainforest communities are normally fire resistant and do not facilitate the spread of fire, however, Macadamias are fire sensitive (O’Hare et al. 2004). There is evidence that Macadamias, along with other rainforest species resprout strongly following fire (Rosedale 1969, Williams 2000, Clarke et al. 2013) and that rainforest elements found in wet sclerophyll forest can survive repeated low intensity fires (Donatiu 2007, unpublished data).

Fire is, however, a direct threat to rainforest remnants in situations where remnant edges are infested with flammable weeds such as lantana or exotic grasses, or where canopy cover has been reduced (such as through smothering of native tree species by cat’s claw creeper and other vine weeds) enabling intrusion of more flammable plant species into remnant patches, thus facilitating the spread of fire into the remnant. Remnants located upslope from grassy or weed-infested areas or from regional ecosystems reliant on a more frequent fire regime, are at increased risk of burning.

The Queensland Herbarium Regional Ecosystem Database (REDD) contains the following fire guideline for each of the four regional ecosystems in which Macadamias are predominantly found:

STRATEGY: Do not burn deliberately. Protection relies on broad-scale management of surrounding country. May need active protection from wildfire in extreme conditions or after prolonged drought. Planned burns should not create a running fire into vine forest. Ensuring conditions of good soil moisture and moisture of litter in surrounding communities will limit fire behaviour/intensity. ISSUES: Fire sensitive and not normally flammable. Some preliminary work suggests rainforest seedling germination from planned burning activities will assist the establishment of seedlings in newly burnt areas, especially due to smoke. There may be issues with lantana (Lantana camera) and other weeds from fire and other disturbance. Remnants may be limited by frequent fire at the margins; this requires further research.

Priority: Medium

Potential Contributors: AMS, MCC, State agencies, local governments, regional NRM organisations, researchers, industry, community groups

Summary of recommended management practices

Management prescriptions necessary for the maintenance and protection of Macadamia species include:

prevent further loss of vegetation communities that provide habitat for Macadamia species

manage the impact of environmental weeds through appropriate control programs that mitigate the impact of established weeds and prevent or slow the establishment of new weed species

provide appropriate encouragement support to private land holders with to protect important populations on their properties

manage fire regimes (frequency, intensity, and seasonality) in Macadamia habitat and neighbouring vegetation communities to ensure that Macadamia populations are not affected by fire-based disturbance events

manage the impact of commercial and private plantations and planted specimens on the genetic diversity of wild populations through information dissemination and adoption of appropriate measures by the Macadamia industry.

Table 11. Summary of actions to mitigate threats

Threat	Current Actions	Future Actions
All Species	-	-
Habitat loss and fragmentation	· Resources to conserve and restore rainforest habitat provided to private landholders through local government, community groups and regional NRM organisations · Provision of Macadamia population data to relevant government authorities (local, state and federal) to assist with legislative and planning protection and guide public land management	· Provision of new Macadamia population data to relevant government authorities (local, state and federal) to assist with legislative and planning protection · Liaison with local governments, regional NRM organisations, Fire and Biodiversity Consortiums and other relevant organisations to access resources for conservation of Macadamia habitat on private properties · Liaison with public land managers to encourage conservation of Macadamia habitats on their properties · Sourcing of additional resources to assist land managers with conservation of Macadamia habitat · Re-survey Macadamia populations to assess changes in population number structure and threat profile · Undertake population viability analysis and investigate differences in genetic diversity between juvenile and adult cohorts · Further investigation (building on current knowledge) into genetic changes to Macadamia populations arising from habitat fragmentation and implementation of key outcomes
Small populations	· Studies of genetic characterisation of Macadamia species and impact of habitat fragmentation on the population viability (UQ and USC) · Development of ex-situ gene banks	· Targeted research on population genetics · Continue investigation building on current knowledge into genetic changes to Macadamia populations arising from habitat fragmentation
Weeds	· Work with stakeholders to reduce the impact of cat’s claw creeper and Madeira vine · Resources to conserve and restore rainforest habitat provided to private landholders through local government, community groups and regional NRM organisations	· Assessment of Macadamia populations to determine level of weed impact and particularly the presence of transformer weed species, such as cat’s claw creeper and Madeira vine · Liaison with local governments, regional NRM organisations and other relevant organisations to access resources for conservation of Macadamia habitat on private properties · Provision of resources to land managers to reduce the impact of specific weed species in areas of known essential habitat · Liaison with public land managers to encourage conservation of Macadamia habitats on their properties · Sourcing of additional resources to assist land managers with conservation of Macadamia habitat · Identify sites suitable for release of biocontrol agents · Work with stakeholders to set up monitoring sites to assess the impacts of cat’s claw creeper on Macadamia populations
Fire	· Resources to conserve and restore rainforest habitat provided to private landholders through local government, community groups and regional NRM organisations	· Liaison with local governments, regional NRM organisations, Fire and Biodiversity Consortiums and other relevant organisations to reduce the threat of fire to Macadamia habitats
Unmanaged livestock	· Resources to conserve and restore rainforest habitat provided to private landholders through local government, community groups and regional NRM organisations	· Provision of resources to land managers to reduce the impact of livestock in areas of known essential habitat
Climate change	· Modelling of the projected impact of climate change on the ecology, distribution, and habitat of Macadamia species · Work with stakeholders to set up four long term monitoring sites occupied by Macadamia species	· Resurvey long term monitoring plots at suitable intervals to assess change in vegetation composition and Macadamia population demographics over time · Provide results of modelling to land use planners · Identify appropriate mitigation measures and develop action-oriented implementation strategy · Use modelling results for targeted engagement of land managers for implementation of mitigation actions
Genetic pollution	-	· Improve understanding of the consequence of pollination of Macadamia species from domestic germplasm and impacts on long-term conservation
Public perception	· Production of species profile leaflet for Macadamia species. Production of Macadamia Story Booklet. Development of a Macadamia conservation website. Gifting of Macadamia species along with interpretation signage to local, regional and state capital botanic gardens. Host interpretation stalls at selected community and environment events	· Continue to develop opportunities for promotion of Macadamia status, for example, through local and regional media, events, social media · Development of community education tools for land managers that build understanding of the conservation management requirements of Macadamia species
Uncoordinated conservation	· Coordinated implementation of recovery actions by the MCT in partnership with Councils and regional NRM organisations through the Wild about Macadamias project	· Build partnerships in Wild about Macadamias to encompass and support a wider range of land managers · Encourage local and state government involvement in the Recovery Team
*Macadamia jansenii*	–	–
Lack of ex-situ gene bank	· Establishment of four ex-situ wild populations and secure population at Tondoon Botanic gardens is underway	· Completion of establishment of an ex-situ gene bank for M. jansenii at Tondoon Botanic Gardens, Gladstone. Continue to establish, monitor and maintain all ex-situ wild populations until self-sufficient

Costs of recovery

The indicative costs of recovering species identified in this plan are detailed in Table 12. Some of these actions are already underway (or planned) in existing management plans and programs. Integration of this plan with existing programs will result in the most efficient and effective use of resources for the conservation of Macadamias.

Table 12. Costs associated with recovering species in the National Recovery Plan for Macadamia Species

Action	Cost estimate ($) Yr 1	Cost estimate ($) Yr 2	Cost estimate ($) Yr 3	Cost estimate ($) Yr 4	Cost estimate ($) Yr 5	Cost estimate ($) Total
1.1 Determine whether additional populations of Macadamia species occur within southern Qld and northern NSW	5,000	5,000	5,000	5,000	5,000	25,000
1.2 Record data from previously unrecorded Macadamia populations, including population size and structure, distance to nearest population, reproductive viability, threats and management issues	5,000	5,000	5,000	5,000	5,000	25,000
1.3 Survey known Macadamia populations for data deficiencies, including population size and structure, distance to nearest population, reproductive viability, threats and management issues	5,000	5,000	5,000	5,000	5,000	25,000
1.4 Use the results of Macadamia population surveys together with research outcomes to systematically prioritise populations for conservation, management and research purposes within an adaptive framework	2,500	2,500	2,500	2,500	2,500	12,500
2.1 Information on the habitats critical to the survival of priority Macadamia populations is provided to government agencies at all levels to assist with legislative and planning protection	5,000	5,000	5,000	5,000	5,000	25,000
2.2 Negotiate appropriate agreements with landholders to establish greater long-term security for priority areas on private property	15,000	15,000	15,000	15,000	15,000	75,000
2.3 Establishment of ex-situ populations for M. jansenii at multiple sites	2,500	2,500	2,500	2,500	2,500	12,500
2.4 Establish seed banks and/or seed orchards	–	–	–	–	–	–
2.5 Develop provenance protocols (for seed and tube stock) to guide Macadamia propagation and planting	–	–	–	–	–	–
2.6 Provide information to public and private land managers (including landholders and Macadamia growers) on known locations of wild Macadamia species to ensure they are considered when making land management decisions	5,000	5,000	5,000	5,000	5,000	25,000
2.7 Support land managers to develop property management plans that include wild Macadamia conservation and threat mitigation	25,000	25,000	25,000	25,000	25,000	125,000
2.8 Source and provide resources and incentives to land managers to seek long-term protection of Macadamia habitat appropriate to the tenure of the habitat	240,000	240,000	240,000	240,000	240,000	1,200,000
2.9 Identify, monitor and manage weed, fire and livestock threats for priority populations	40,000	40,000	40,000	40,000	40,000	200,000
2.10 Undertake release of biocontrol agents for weeds such as cat’s claw creeper and Madeira vine at appropriate sites and monitor results	5,000	7,500	10,000	12,500	15,000	50,000
2.11 Establish long-term monitoring programs for priority Macadamia populations and disseminate the results	–	15,000	–	–	15,000	30,000
2.12 Update models of the projected impact of climate change on Macadamia ecology, extent of habitat and threatening processes	–	5,000	–	5,000	–	10,000
3.1 Encourage research to address gaps in the current understanding of Macadamia species ecology and develop research priorities for conservation	2,500	2,500	2,500	2,500	2,500	12,500
3.2 Increase knowledge of the structure of genetic diversity in wild populations to assist prioritisation of populations for conservation	10,000	10,000	10,000	10,000	10,000	50,000
3.3 Improve understanding of the consequence of pollination of Macadamia species from domestic germplasm and impacts on long-term conservation	10,000	10,000	10,000	10,000	10,000	50,000
3.4 Facilitate the use of traditional ecological knowledge in the recovery of Macadamia species	10,000	10,000	10,000	10,000	10,000	50,000
3.5 Research outcomes are promoted and made easily accessible to land managers, land use planners and the wider community	5,000	5,000	5,000	5,000	5,000	25,000
3.6 New ecological information is incorporated into information products and materials	2,500	2,500	2,500	2,500	2,500	12,500
4.1 Develop community education tools that build understanding of the conservation management requirements of Macadamia species	6,000	6,000	6,000	6,000	6,000	30,000
4.2 Continue to develop opportunities for promotion of Macadamia species conservation status	12,000	12,000	12,000	12,000	12,000	60,000
4.3 Liaise with state government agencies, local governments, and regional NRM organisations in order to incorporate Macadamia conservation into their biodiversity conservation and natural resource management strategies	5,000	5,000	5,000	5,000	5,000	25,000
5.1 Maintain the role of the Macadamia Conservation Committee as the coordinating body for the Recovery Plan	16,000	16,000	16,000	16,000	16,000	80,000
5.2 Monitor and evaluate the outcomes of the Recovery Plan using an adaptive management framework	–	10,000	–	10,000	–	20,000
Year/Grand Totals	446,500	479,000	451,500	469,000	471,500	2,317,500

Evaluation of Recovery Plan

The Macadamia Conservation Committee will endeavour to monitor the progress and delivery of the National Recovery Plan for Macadamia Species throughout the life of the Recovery Plan. The MCC will review the Recovery Plan biennially to include new knowledge – whether from research generated as a result of the plan or derived from work undertaken within specific actions – and revise priorities if required.

Resources permitting, the Recovery Plan will be evaluated by members of the MCC at the end of the five-year period in 2028. Implementation of all management actions will be assessed against the designated performance criteria in Section 5.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to acknowledge contributors to the previous Recovery Plan (the Southern Macadamia Species Recovery Plan, SMSRP), and contributions made by the current Recovery Team (Appendix 1: Recovery Team membership), members of the MCC and MCRN, HAL, AMS, local government officers, botanists, landholders and professional staff, to this revision.

Contributors to this Recovery Plan:

Denise Bond

Jolyon Burnett

Ken Dorey

John Gillett

Dr Craig Hardner

Brice Kaddatz

Ian McConachie AM

Maria Matthes

Dr Jodi Neal

Dr Catherine Nock

Associate Professor Alison Shapcott

Associate Professor Bruce Topp

Contributors to previous Recovery Plan (SMSRP):

Jolyon Burnett

Ken Dorey

John Gillett

Paul Grimshaw

Dr Gordon Guymer

Dr Craig Hardner

Brice Kaddatz

Ian McConachie

Maria Matthes

Ann Moran

Dr Jodi Neal

Rosemary Niehus

Michael Powell

Dr Alison Shapcott

Associate Professor Bruce Topp

The authors are especially grateful for the guidance and support provided by Ian McConachie AM.

Acronyms

Term	Definition
AG	Australian Government
AMS	Australian Macadamia Society
ASL	Above Sea Level
BCT	Biodiversity Conservation Trust
BRAIN	Brisbane Rainforest Action and Information Network
BMRG	Burnett-Mary Regional Group
CA	Conservation Area
E	Endangered
DAF	Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries
DES	Queensland Department of Environment and Science
DPIE	New South Wales Department of Planning, Infrastructure and Environment
DTMR	Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads
EPBC Act	Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth)
FR	Forest Reserve
HAL	Horticulture Australia Limited
LA	Lease Area
MCC	Macadamia Conservation Committee
MCRC	Macadamia Conservation Research Committee
MCT	Macadamia Conservation Trust
MGA	Map Grid of Australia
NHT	Natural Heritage Trust
NP	National Park
NR	Nature Refuge
NRM	Natural Resource Management
NSW	New South Wales
QAAFI	Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation
QTfN	Queensland Trust for Nature
RAF	Radioactive Amplified DNA Fingerprinting
RE	Regional Ecosystem
REDD	Regional Ecosystem Description Database
SEQFBC	South East Queensland Fire and Biodiversity Consortium
SF	State forest
TAP	Threat Abatement Plan
SEQTOLSMA	South East Queensland Traditional Owner Land and Sea Management Alliance
SMSRP	Southern Macadamia Species Recovery Plan
USC	University of the Sunshine Coast
V	Vulnerable
VCA	Voluntary Conservation Agreement

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Appendix 1: Recovery Team membership

The Recovery Team consists of members of the Macadamia Conservation Committee and the Macadamia Conservation Research Committee.

These committees were established by the Macadamia Conservation Trust (MCT) in 2018. Members are appointed by invitation and have a term of three years; the full Terms of Reference for each Committee is available from the MCT.

In 2018, appointed members of each Committee were as shown in Table 13 and

Table 14.

Table 13. Macadamia Conservation Committee

Name	Organisation
Denise Bond	Macadamia Conservation Trust (Executive Officer)
Jolyon Burnett	Australian Macadamia Society (CEO)
Andrew Burnside	Community member
Ken Dorey	Community member
Graeme Fleming	Australian Macadamia Society (Board Member)
Liz Gould	Healthy Land and Water
Dick Harding	Save our Waterways Now (SOWN)
Brice Kaddatz	Community member
Ian McConachie AM	Community member
Paul O’Hare (Chair)	Community member
Trevor Steinhardt	Australian Macadamia Society (Board Member)

Table 14. Macadamia Conservation Research Committee

Name	Organisation
Andrew Burnside	Macadamia Conservation Committee
Dr Catherine Nock	Southern Cross University
Dr Craig Hardner	University of Queensland
Ian McConachie AM (Chair)	Macadamia Conservation Committee
Dr Katie O’Connor	University of Queensland
Dr Chris Searle	Industry consultant
Associate Professor Alison Shapcott	University of the Sunshine Coast
Associate Professor Bruce Topp	University of Queensland

Appendix 2: Risk probability, consequence and impact analysis

Probability assessment (defining the probability of the issue occurring)

Terms used to describe the probability of an event occurring are:

Likely: Event is known to occur or would be expected to occur

Occasional: Event may occur

Possible: Event would be unlikely to occur (evidence to suggest it is possible)

Unlikely: Event would occur rarely (uncommon but known to occur elsewhere)

Rare: Event would occur very rarely (in exceptional circumstances)

Remote: Chance of event occurring is so small it can be ignored in practical terms (never heard of but not impossible)

Consequence assessment (defining the consequences of the issue occurring)

Terms used to describe the severity of the expected impacts (level of significance) are shown in Table 15. These terms are used in the risk evaluation matrix for potential impacts shown in Figure 2.

Table 15. Levels of impact and their ecological consequences

Level	Ecological consequence
Negligible	Insignificant impacts to populations. Unlikely to be measurable against background variability. Interactions may be occurring, but it is unlikely that there would be any change outside of natural variation.
Low	Possibly detectable but little impact on population size and none on dynamics.
Moderate	Level of interaction/impact at maximum acceptable level. Long-term recruitment/dynamics not adversely affected.
High	Level of impact above maximum acceptable level. Would affect recruitment levels of the species or their capacity to increase in numbers.
Very High	Likely to cause local extinctions if continued.
Catastrophic	Local extinctions are imminent/immediate.

Figure 2. Risk evaluation matrix – potential impacts