Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (National Recovery Plan for albatrosses and petrels) Instrument 2022 (Cth)

Commonwealth of Australia

Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999
Subsection 269A(3)

Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (National Recovery Plan for albatrosses and petrels) Instrument 2022

We, Tanya Plibersek, Minister for the Environment and Water (Commonwealth); Lily D'Ambrosio, Minister for Environment and Climate Action (Victoria); Meaghan Scanlon, Minister for the Environment and the Great Barrier Reef (Queensland); Reece Whitby, Minister for Environment (Western Australia); and Roger Jaensch, Minister for Environment and Climate Change (Tasmania), under subsection 269A(3) of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, jointly make a recovery plan titled:

National Recovery Plan for albatrosses and petrels (2022)

This instrument will come into force on the day after it is registered on the Federal Register of Legislation.

Dated this 27th day of September 2022

Tanya Plibersek

Minister for the Environment and Water (Commonwealth)

Dated this 19th day of September 2022

Lily D'Ambrosio

Minister for Environment and Climate Action (Victoria)

Dated this 9th day of September 2022

Meaghan Scanlon

Minister for the Environment and the Great Barrier Reef (Queensland)

Dated this 31st day of August 2022

Reece Whitby

Minister for Environment (Western Australia)

Dated this 6th day of September 2022

Roger Jaensch

Minister for Environment and Climate Change (Tasmania)

National Recovery Plan for albatrosses and petrels (2022)

The Species Profile and Threats Database pages linked to this recovery plan are obtainable from: Copyright Commonwealth of Australia, 2022.

The National Recovery Plan for albatrosses and petrels is licensed by the Commonwealth of Australia for use under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International licence with the exception of the Coat of Arms of the Commonwealth of Australia, the logo of the agency responsible for publishing the report, content supplied by third parties, and any images depicting people. For licence conditions see: report should be attributed as ‘National Recovery Plan for albatrosses and petrels (2022), Commonwealth of Australia 2022'.

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Disclaimer

While reasonable efforts have been made to ensure that the contents of this publication are factually correct, the Commonwealth does not accept responsibility for the accuracy or completeness of the contents, and shall not be liable for any loss of damage that may be occasioned directly or indirectly through the use of, or reliance on, the contents of this publication.

Image credits

Front cover, pages 44, 47, 54, 55, 59, 109: Shy Albatross (Thalassarche cauta).

© Copyright, Jonathon HS Barrington.

Back cover: Shy Albatross (Thalassarche cauta). © Copyright, Kris Carylon.

National Recovery Plan for albatrosses and petrels (2022)

Contents

List of Tables

List of Figures

Glossary

1      Summary

2      Introduction

2.1          Recovery plans

2.2          Albatross and petrel species referred to in recovery plan

2.3          Review of previous recovery plan

2.4          Legal framework

2.5          Albatross and petrel ecology

2.6          Habitats regarded as critical to the survival of the threatened species

2.7          Key Biodiversity Areas

3      Threats

3.1          Nature of threats

3.2          Threat prioritisation

3.3          Terrestrial threats

3.4          Marine threats

3.5          Summary of terrestrial and marine threats

4      Recovery plan vision, objectives and strategies

4.1          Long-term vision

4.2          Recovery plan objective

4.3          Strategies to achieve the objective

5      Actions to achieve the objective

5.1          Priorities assigned to each action

5.2          Overarching actions

Strategy 1 – Ensure ongoing protection of albatross and petrel breeding site habitats in Australia’s jurisdiction

Strategy 2 – Improve the understanding of the size, structure and population trends for albatrosses and petrels breeding in Australia's jurisdiction

Strategy 3 – Improve effectiveness of management measures that reduce land-based threats to albatrosses and petrels breeding within Australia's jurisdiction

Strategy 4 – Improve effectiveness of management measures that reduce marine based threats to albatrosses and petrels foraging in Australia's jurisdiction

Strategy 5 – Improve understanding of generalised threats to albatrosses and petrels breeding and foraging within Australia's jurisdiction

Strategy 6 – Improve community awareness of the conservation of albatrosses and petrels

Strategy 7 – Achieve substantial progress towards global conservation of albatrosses and petrels in international conservation and fishing forums

5.3          Performance of the recovery plan

6      Recovery team

7      Duration and cost of the recovery process

8      Effects on other native species and biodiversity benefits

9      Social and economic considerations

10   Affected interests

11   Consultation

12   Organisations/persons involved in evaluating performance of the plan

13   References

APPENDIX A: Species Profiles

Albatross species breeding in Australia's jurisdiction

Diomedea exulans Wandering Albatross Linnaeus 1758

Phoebetria palbebrata Light-mantled Albatross (Forster 1785)

Thalassarche cauta Shy Albatross (Gould 1841)

Thalassarche chrysostoma Grey-headed Albatross (Forster 1785)

Thalassarche melanophris Black-browed Albatross (Temminck 1828)

Petrel species breeding in Australia's jurisdiction

Macronectes giganteus Southern Giant Petrel (Gmelin 1789)

Macronectes halli Northern Giant Petrel Mathews 1912

Procellaria cinerea Grey Petrel Gmelin 1789

Albatross species only foraging in Australia's jurisdiction

Diomedea amsterdamensis Amsterdam Albatross Roux et al. 1983

Diomedea antipodensis Antipodean Albatross Robertson and Warham 1992

Diomedea dabbenena Tristan Albatross Matthews 1929

Diomedea epomophora Southern Royal Albatross Lesson 1825

Diomedea sanfordi Northern Royal Albatross Murphy 1917

Phoebetria fusca Sooty Albatross (Hilsenberg 1822)

Thalassarche bulleri Buller's Albatross (Rothschild 1893)

Thalassarche carteri Indian Yellow-nosed Albatross (Rothschild 1903)

Thalassarche chlororhynchos Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatross (Gmelin 1789)

Thalassarche eremita Chatham Albatross Murphy 1930

Thalassarche impavida Campbell Albatross Mathews 1912

Thalassarche salvini Salvin's Albatross (Rothschild 1893)

Thalassarche steadi White-capped Albatross Falla 1933

Petrel species only foraging in Australia's jurisdiction

Procellaria aequinoctialis White-chinned Petrel Linnaeus 1758

Procellaria parkinsoni Black Petrel Gray 1862

Procellaria westlandica Westland Petrel Falla 1946

APPENDIX B: Status under Commonwealth and state threatened species legislation of albatross and petrel species referred to in the recovery plan

APPENDIX C: Habitats that are regarded as critical to the survival of threatened albatross and petrel species breeding within Australia's jurisdiction

List of Tables

Table 1:       Albatross and petrel species referred to in the National Recovery Plan for albatrosses and petrels.

Table 2:       Albatross and petrel breeding site locations in Australia’s jurisdiction.

Table 3:       Risk prioritisation

Table 4:       Terrestrial and marine threats affecting the albatross and petrel species included in the recovery plan, adapted from Salafsky et al. (2008) and Dias et al. (2019)

Table 5:       Summary of overarching actions in the National Recovery Plan for albatrosses and petrels.

Table 6:       Strategy 1: Actions to ensure ongoing protection of albatross and petrel breeding site habitats in Australia's jurisdiction.

Table 7:       Strategy 2: Actions to improve the understanding of the size, structure and population trends for albatrosses and petrels breeding in Australia’s jurisdiction.

Table 8:       Strategy 3: Actions to improve effectiveness of management measures that reduce land-based threats to albatrosses and petrels breeding within Australia’s jurisdiction.

Table 9:       Strategy 4: Actions to improve effectiveness of management measures that reduce marine based threats to albatrosses and petrels foraging in Australia's jurisdiction.

Table 10:      Strategy 5: Actions to improve understanding of generalised threats to albatrosses and petrels breeding and foraging within Australia's jurisdiction.

Table 11:      Strategy 6: Actions to improve community awareness of the conservation of albatrosses and petrels.

Table 12:      Strategy 7: Actions to achieve substantial progress towards global conservation of albatrosses and petrels in international conservation and fishing forums.

Table 13:      Performance measures.

Table 14:      Summary of recovery actions and estimated costs for the first five years of implementation (these estimated costs do not take into account inflation over time).

Table 15:      Affected interests.

Table 16:      Classification of albatross and petrel species to which the recovery plan applies.

Table 17:      Wandering Albatross (Diomedea exulans) risk matrix.

Table 18:      Light-mantled Albatross (Phoebetria palbebrata) risk matrix.

Table 19:      Shy Albatross (Thalassarche cauta) risk matrix.

Table 20:      Grey-headed Albatross (Thalassarche chrysostoma) risk matrix.

Table 21:      Black-browed Albatross (Thalassarche melanophris) risk matrix.

Table 22:      Southern Giant Petrel (Macronectes giganteus) risk matrix.

Table 23:      Northern Giant Petrel (Macronectes halli) risk matrix.

Table 24:      Grey Petrel (Procellaria cinerea) risk matrix.

Table 25:      Amsterdam Albatross (Diomedea amsterdamensis) risk matrix.

Table 26:      Antipodean Albatross (Diomedea antipodensis) risk matrix.

Table 27:      Tristan Albatross (Diomedea dabbenena) risk matrix.

Table 28:      Southern Royal Albatross (Diomedea epomophora) risk matrix.

Table 29:      Northern Royal Albatross (Diomedea sanfordi) risk matrix.

Table 30:      Sooty Albatross (Phoebetria fusca) risk matrix.

Table 31:      Buller’s Albatross (Thalassarche bulleri) risk matrix.

Table 32:      Indian Yellow-nosed Albatross (Thalassarche carteri) risk matrix.

Table 33:      Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatross (Thalassarche chlororhynchos) risk matrix.

Table 34:      Chatham Albatross (Thalassarche eremita) risk matrix.

Table 35:      Campbell Albatross (Thalassarche impavida) risk matrix.

Table 36:      Salvin's Albatross (Thalassarche salvini) risk matrix.

Table 37:      White-capped Albatross (Thalassarche steadi) risk matrix.

Table 38:      White-chinned Petrel (Procellaria aequinoctialis) risk matrix.

Table 39:      Black Petrel (Procellaria parkinsoni) risk matrix.

Table 40:      Westland Petrel (Procellaria westlandica) risk matrix.

Table 41:      Vertebrate animal species introduced to Macquarie Island.

List of Figures

Figure 1:      Modelled Australian distribution of Wandering Albatross (Diomedea exulans).

Figure 2:      Modelled Australian distribution of Shy Albatross (Thalassarche cauta).

Figure 3:      Modelled Australian distribution of Grey-headed Albatross (Thalassarche chrysostoma).

Figure 4:      Modelled Australian distribution of Black-browed Albatross (Thalassarche melanophris).

Figure 5:      Modelled Australian distribution of Southern Giant Petrel (Macronectes giganteus).

Figure 6:      Modelled Australian distribution of Northern Giant Petrel (Macronectes halli).

Figure 7:      Modelled Australian distribution of Amsterdam Albatross (Diomedea amsterdamensis).

Figure 8:      Modelled Australian distribution of Antipodean Albatross (Diomedea antipodensis).

Figure 9:      Modelled Australian distribution of Tristan Albatross (Diomedea dabbenena).

Figure 10:    Modelled Australian distribution of Southern Royal Albatross (Diomedea epomophora).

Figure 11:    Modelled Australian distribution of Northern Royal Albatross (Diomedea sanfordi).

Figure 12:    Modelled Australian distribution of Sooty Albatross (Phoebetria fusca).

Figure 13:    Modelled Australian distribution of Buller’s Albatross (Thalassarche bulleri).

Figure 14:    Modelled Australian distribution of Indian Yellow-nosed Albatross (Thalassarche carteri).

Figure 15:    Modelled Australian distribution of Chatham Albatross (Thalassarche eremita).

Figure 16:    Modelled Australian distribution of Campbell Albatross (Thalassarche impavida).

Figure 17:    Modelled Australian distribution of Salvin’s Albatross (Thalassarche salvini).

Figure 18:    Modelled Australian distribution of White-capped Albatross (Thalassarche steadi).

Glossary

AAD	Australian Antarctic Division of the Australian Government Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water.
AAT	Australian Antarctic Territory.
ACAP	Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels, done 19 June 2001, 2258 UNTS 257 (entered into force 1 February 2004).
AFMA	Australian Fisheries Management Authority.
ANARE	Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions.
Australian Fishing Zone	Area of waters between three nautical miles and 200 nautical miles seaward of the baselines.
Australia's jurisdiction	The area over which Australia has the power to make legal decisions and judgements.
ATEP Act	Antarctic Treaty Environment Protection Act 1980 (Cth).
Bycatch	Unintentional catch of a seabird during fishing.
Caught	Where a seabird is either hooked, entangled or struck by fishing gear, regardless of whether the seabird is landed on board the fishing vessel.
CBD	Convention on Biological Diversity.
CMS	Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, done 23 June 1979, 1651 UNTS 333 (entered into force 1 November 1983).
DCCEEW	Australian Government Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water.
EEZ	Exclusive Economic Zone—area of waters between 12 nautical miles and 200 nautical miles seaward of the baselines.
Electronic monitoring system	Video recording system involving cameras positioned on a fishing vessel enabling fishing operations (including setting and hauling) to be recorded, and viewed later by regulatory authorities for management purposes.
EPBC Act	Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth).
FAO	Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Fishing gear	Any fishing gear deployed by a fishing vessel including seabird mitigation devices and technologies.

Fishing operator

Legal or natural person who holds a fishing concession, as defined under fisheries legislation: for example, the Fisheries Management Act 1991(Cth).

Gillnet fishing

Gillnets are long rectangular nets, which are set horizontally along the ocean floor. The nets are kept vertical by floats along the top and weights along the bottom. Fish swim into the net and are entangled by the gills, fins and spines.

Harmful marine debris

All plastics and other types of debris from domestic or international sources that may cause harm to vertebrate marine wildlife. This includes land-sourced plastic garbage (for example, bags, bottles, ropes, fibreglass, piping, insulation, paints and adhesives), derelict fishing gear from recreational and commercial fishing activities, and ship-sourced, solid non-biodegradable floating materials lost or disposed of at sea.

HIMI

External Territory of Heard Island and McDonald Islands.

Impact

A marked effect or influence.

Independent monitoring

Monitoring of fishing operations by regulatory authorities using a scientific observer or other independent observer, and/or an electronic monitoring system.

Interaction

In the context of this recovery plan an interaction with a seabird occurs where a seabird is observed as caught under one of the following situations:

1.     Dead not landed on board—birds observed to be killed by direct interaction with fishing gear, but not landed on the fishing vessel.

2.     Dead landed on board – birds killed by direct interaction with fishing gear and landed on the fishing vessel.

3.     Alive landed on board the fishing vessel following direct interaction with fishing gear:

a)     injured, or

b)    released uninjured.

4.     Alive and released while not on board the fishing vessel following direct interaction with fishing gear:

a)     injured, or

b)    released uninjured.

IUCN

International Union for Conservation of Nature.

KBA

Key Biodiversity Areas.

Longline fishing

Setting and hauling of one or more single lines (mainline) that contains many individual hooks on branch lines. The mainline can either be anchored or drifting. It can be oriented vertically or horizontally, and vary considerably in length and number of hooks. Longline fishing includes using any configuration of a pelagic or demersal longline.

NGO

Non-government organisation.

Offal

Discarded waste from the processing of fish (including, among other things, discarded fish and other organisms, and used baits).

Pelagic finfish

Fish that live in the upper layers of the sea or ocean.

Purse seine

A generally small-meshed net with a floating top and weighted bottom that is deployed to encircle target species. After encirclement, a wire threaded through the bottom of the net is pulled to tighten the net like a purse, enclosing the catch within and allowing the net to be brought to the fishing vessel where the catch is retrieved either by brailing, pumping or bringing the net and catch on board the vessel.

Precautionary approach

The precautionary approach is included as one of the principles of ecologically sustainable development in subsection 3A(a) of the EPBC Act, as follows:

'if there are threats of serious or irreversible environmental damage, a lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent environmental degradation'.

Range States

Any State that exercises jurisdiction over any part of the range of albatross or petrels, or a State, flag vessels of which are engaged outside of its national jurisdictional limits in taking, or have the potential to take, albatrosses and petrels.

Recovery plan

A plan setting out the research and management actions necessary to stop the decline of, and support the recovery of, listed threatened species or threatened ecological communities under the EPBC Act.

Seabird

A bird that frequents the sea or coast. For the purposes of this recovery plan, a seabird includes all species in the Class Aves.

Seabird mitigation device

Device designed to reduce the likelihood of interactions between seabirds and fishing gear.

Recovery Team

Forum established by the department to discuss implementation and effectiveness of provisions of this recovery plan. Participation includes representatives from Australian and state governments, the fishing industry, non-governmental organisations, academic institutions, scientists, innovators, manufacturers, and others with an interest and expertise in conserving threatened albatrosses and petrels.

Threatening process

A process that threatens, or may threaten, the survival, abundance or evolutionary development of a native species or ecological community: see subsection 188(3) of the EPBC Act.

Threat abatement plan

A plan providing for the research, management, and any other actions necessary to reduce the impact of a listed key threatening process on impacted species and ecological communities.

Trawl fishing

Pulling a fishing net through the water behind one or more boats. Trawl fishing includes using any configuration of a pelagic or demersal trawl net.

TSSC

Threatened Species Scientific Committee.

1. Summary

The National Recovery Plan for albatrosses and petrels (2022) provides a national strategy to guide the activities of government, industry, research organisations, and other stakeholders in the protection, conservation and management of listed threatened albatross and petrel species. The plan outlines the research and management actions necessary to stop the decline and support the recovery of the species so that their chances of long-term survival in nature are maximised. The plan also outlines the major benefits to other albatross and petrel species that are not listed as threatened, but will be affected by the implementation of the plan.

This recovery plan is the third plan for threatened albatross and petrel species under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth) (EPBC Act). The plan replaces the previous plan adopted in 2011.

Seabirds remain among the world's most threatened bird species. Albatrosses and petrels in particular face an ongoing conservation crisis. Many threatened albatross and petrel species breed and/or forage in Australia's jurisdiction and distribute widely across the world's oceans and remote, offshore islands. These species face a range of threats to their long-term survival on land, particularly habitat degradation and predation by feral species, and at sea, particularly incidental catch during fishing operations. The recovery of threatened albatrosses and petrels relies on an integrated approach involving actions at domestic and international levels. Although Australian breeding and/or foraging populations of albatrosses and petrels, other than the endemic Shy Albatross (Thalassarche cauta), generally represent a small proportion of global populations, these species make a significant contribution to Australia's biodiversity.

The recovery plan recognises that recovery of threatened albatrosses and petrels will take longer than the 10-year life of the current plan due to the long generation lengths and life histories of the species concerned. It further acknowledges that a recovery plan should remain in place for affected species until such time as the conservation status of the species breeding and/or foraging in Australia's jurisdiction has improved to the point where populations are considered secure. The plan aims to provide continuity for recovery actions for these long-lived species, and also recognises that within the five-year timeframe for reviewing progress under a recovery plan there is insufficient time to determine accurately changes affecting the recovery of the species within Australia's jurisdiction. The plan also aims to provide continuity for international advocacy by Australia, particularly through the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels, relevant regional fisheries and conservation bodies, and through engaging with range states and international bodies with an interest an expertise in conserving the species.

The long-term vision under this recovery plan is that the populations of albatross and petrel species breeding and/or foraging in Australia's jurisdiction have increased to such a size that the species no longer qualify for listing as threatened under any of the EPBC Act listing criteria.

The objective of the recovery plan is:

To improve the conservation status of albatrosses and petrels so that these species are on a trajectory towards no longer being threatened in Australia's jurisdiction.

The success or otherwise of the recovery plan including the trajectory of species will be measured according to progress on the plan's strategies and overarching actions. The objective will be achieved if within three generations (60 years approx.) there is a measurable and sustained positive population trend (compared to 2021 baseline counts) in the number of mature individuals within the Australian breeding populations of albatross and petrel species within the recovery plan. The recovery plan includes strategies and overarching actions to be applied within Australia's jurisdiction that protect albatross and petrel breeding habitats, address threats to the conservation of the species on land and at sea, generate new knowledge to guide recovery, and increase public awareness. The plan will also assist in the implementation of Australia's international environmental responsibilities, in particular to give effect to obligations under the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels and Convention on Biological Diversity, and including engagement with relevant regional conservation and fisheries organisations and arrangements to advance the conservation of albatrosses and petrels.

Strategies have been identified that will be used to measure the effectiveness of the recovery plan and progress towards its objective over the life of the plan.

1. Ensure ongoing protection of albatross and petrel breeding sites and habitats in Australia's jurisdiction.

1. Improve the understanding of the size, structure and population trends for albatrosses and petrels breeding in Australia's jurisdiction.

1. Improve effectiveness of management measures that reduce land-based threats to albatrosses and petrels breeding in Australia's jurisdiction.

1. Improve effectiveness of management measures that reduce marine-based threats to albatrosses and petrels foraging in Australia's jurisdiction.

1. Improve understanding of generalised threats to albatrosses and petrels breeding and foraging within Australia's jurisdiction.

1. Improve community awareness of the conservation of albatrosses and petrels.

1. Achieve substantial progress towards global conservation of albatrosses and petrels in international conservation and fishing forums.

This recovery plan is being made jointly by the Australian Government, and the governments of Western Australia, Victoria, Tasmania and Queensland. This joint approach recognises the wide distribution of albatrosses and petrels that breed and forage in Australia's jurisdiction. The approach ensures that complementary actions are taken by the Commonwealth, and by states in areas under their respective control and responsibility. The Australian Government is committed to acting in accordance with the recovery plan and to implementing the plan as it applies to Commonwealth areas.

The recovery plan has been developed with the involvement and cooperation of a broad range of stakeholders, however individual stakeholders have not necessarily committed to undertaking specific actions. The attainment of objectives and the provision of funds may be subject to budgetary and other constraints affecting the parties involved. Proposed actions may be subject to modification over the life of the plan due to changes in knowledge.

1. Introduction

The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth) (EPBC Act) provides for the protection of the environment and conservation of biodiversity, including the protection, conservation and management of listed threatened species through the implementation of recovery plans. Successive recovery plans for threatened albatross and petrel species have been in place since 2001. This National Recovery Plan for threatened albatrosses and petrels (2021) replaces the National Recovery Plan for threatened albatrosses and giant petrels 2011–2016 (DSEWPC 2011b). The plan outlines the research and management actions necessary to stop the decline, and support the recovery of these species so that their chances of long-term survival in nature are maximised.

Seabirds remain among the world's most threatened bird species. Albatrosses and petrels in particular facing an ongoing conservation crisis (Phillips et al. 2016, ACAP 2019a). Many threatened albatross and petrel species breed and/or forage in Australia's jurisdiction and distribute widely across the world's oceans and remote, offshore islands (del Hoyo & Collar 2014, Menkhorst et al. 2017). These species face a range of threats to their long-term conservation status on land: particularly habitat degradation and predation by feral species; and at-sea: particularly incidental catch during fishing operations; as well as generalised threats: particularly marine pollution, marine plastics and climate change (Croxall et al. 2012, Phillips et al. 2016). The recovery of threatened albatrosses and petrels relies on an integrated approach involving actions at domestic and international levels.

This recovery plan provides a national strategy to guide the activities of government, industry, research organisations, and other stakeholders in protecting, conserving and managing threatened albatross and petrel species that breed and/or forage in Australia's jurisdiction. There may be synergies with other work areas or management regimes where opportunities are presented to leverage off existing conservation measures. Where possible collaboration and integration with existing programs should be explored and encouraged.

Although Australian breeding and/or foraging populations of albatrosses and petrels generally represent a small proportion of global populations, other than the endemic Thalassarche cauta (Shy Albatross), these species make a significant contribution to Australia's biodiversity. This plan will be made for each of the following 20 EPBC Act listed threatened species:

·      Diomedea amsterdamensis (Amsterdam Albatross)

·      Diomedea antipodensis (Antipodean Albatross)

·      Diomedea antipodensis gibsoni (Gibson's Albatross)

·      Diomedea dabbenena (Tristan Albatross)

·      Diomedea epomophora (Southern Royal Albatross)

·      Diomedea exulans (Wandering Albatross)

·      Diomedea sanfordi (Northern Royal Albatross)

·      Macronectes giganteus (Southern Giant Petrel)

·      Macronectes halli (Northern Giant Petrel)

·      Phoebetria fusca (Sooty Albatross)

·      Thalassarche bulleri (Buller’s Albatross)

·      Thalassarche bulleri platei (Northern Buller's Albatross)

·      Thalassarche carteri (Indian Yellow-nosed Albatross)

·      Thalassarche cauta (Shy Albatross)

·      Thalassarche chrysostoma (Grey-headed Albatross)

·      Thalassarche eremita (Chatham Albatross)

·      Thalassarche impavida (Campbell Albatross)

·      Thalassarche melanophris (Black-browed Albatross)

·      Thalassarche salvini (Salvin's Albatross)

·      Thalassarche steadi (White-capped Albatross).

Albatrosses and petrels in Australia forage in higher latitude, maritime waters from Western Australia to Queensland, predominantly southwards of the parallel of 25°S, with eight of the species included in this recovery plan breeding on offshore islands of Tasmania (Albatross Island, Macquarie Island, the Mewstone and Pedra Branca), the external Territory of Heard Island and McDonald Islands, and the Australian Antarctic Territory (AAT) (Baker et al. 2002, Menkhorst et al. 2017). Many of these species distribute widely across the world's oceans in the higher latitudes of the southern hemisphere (del Hoyo & Collar 2014). Accordingly, this plan recognises that the recovery of threatened albatrosses and petrels relies on an integrated approach involving actions at domestic and international levels.

The recovery plan also outlines the major benefits to other albatross and petrel species in Australia that will be affected by its implementation. While not listed as threatened under the EPBC Act, these species occur in essentially the same areas, face the same conservation threats, require the same conservation actions, and are listed under the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels (ACAP), and included on the Red List of Threatened Species of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) (IUCN 2021). Including the following additional albatross and petrel species in this plan makes it a more cogent document:

·      Phoebetria palpebrata (Light-mantled Albatross)

·      Procellaria aequinoctialis (White-chinned Petrel)

·      Procellaria cinerea (Grey Petrel)

·      Procellaria parkinsoni (Black Petrel)

·      Procellaria westlandica (Westland Petrel)

·      Thalassarche chlororhynchos (Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatross).

Phoebastria immutabilis (Laysan Albatross) is not included in this recovery plan. While considered under the previous plan (DSEWPC 2011a, 2011b), available scientific evidence indicates that the species predominantly has a northern Pacific Ocean distribution (ACAP 2012l), and is a rarely detected visitor to Australian waters adjacent to Norfolk Island (Moore 1999). It is not a listed threatened species under the EPBC Act. Consequently, this vagrant species does not warrant inclusion in the plan, and its conservation will not be affected by the plan's implementation.

This recovery plan is being made jointly by the Australian Government, and the governments of Western Australia, Victoria, Tasmania and Queensland. This joint approach recognises the wide distribution of albatrosses and petrels that breed and/or forage in Australia's jurisdiction. The approach ensures that complementary actions are taken by the Commonwealth, and affected states in areas under their respective control and responsibility. The Australian Government is committed to acting in accordance with the recovery plan and to implementing the plan as it applies to Commonwealth areas.

The recovery plan is supported by related frameworks that contribute to the conservation of albatrosses and petrels, in particular:

·      Threat Abatement Plan for the incidental catch (or bycatch) of seabirds during oceanic longline fishing operations, which aims to achieve zero bycatch of seabirds from longline fishing in Commonwealth fisheries (Commonwealth of Australia 2018b).

·      Threat Abatement Plan for the impacts of marine debris on the vertebrate wildlife of Australia’s coasts and oceans, which provides national guidance on action to prevent and mitigate the impacts of harmful marine debris on vertebrate marine life (Commonwealth of Australia 2018a).

·      National Plan of Action for minimising incidental catch of seabirds in Australian capture fisheries, which aims to minimise and, where practicable, eliminate the incidental catch of seabirds in capture fisheries (DAWR 2018).

·      National light pollution guidelines for wildlife including marine turtles, seabirds and migratory shorebirds, which provide a framework for how to assess and manage the effect of light pollution on protected wildlife (Commonwealth of Australia 2019b).

The recovery plan recognises that recovery of threatened albatrosses and petrels will take longer than the 10-year life of the current plan due to the long generation lengths of the species concerned (Bird et al. 2020). It further acknowledges that a recovery plan should remain in place for affected species until such time as the conservation status of the species breeding and/or foraging in Australia's jurisdiction has improved to the point where populations are considered secure. The plan aims to provide continuity for recovery actions for these long-lived species, recognising that within the five-year timeframe for reviewing progress under the plan there is insufficient time to determine accurately changes affecting the recovery of the species within Australia's jurisdiction. The plan also aims to provide continuity for international advocacy by Australia, particularly through ACAP, relevant regional conservation and fisheries bodies, and through engagement with range states, and international bodies with an interest and expertise in conserving these species.

2.1    Recovery plans

The Australian Government develops recovery plans for the purposes of the protection, conservation and management of listed threatened species under the EPBC Act. A plan may be made by the Commonwealth or jointly with one or more states and territories in which the threatened species occurs, or with agencies of one or more of those states and territories. Part 13 of the EPBC Act describes the process, content and consultation required when making or varying a recovery plan. A recovery plan may apply to one or more threatened species.

The legislation requires the Commonwealth to implement a plan to the extent to which it applies in areas under Commonwealth control and responsibility. In addition, Commonwealth agencies must not take any action that contravenes a recovery plan. Where a plan applies outside Commonwealth areas in states and territories, the Commonwealth must seek the cooperation of the affected jurisdiction, with a view to jointly implementing the recovery plan.

Successive recovery plans have been implemented to support the recovery of threatened albatrosses and petrels since 2001. Each plan has provided for the research and management actions necessary to stop the decline of, and support the recovery of, the listed threatened albatross and petrel species, so that the chances of long-term survival in nature of the affected species are maximised. Recovery plans made under the EPBC Act are subject to review within five years and sunset after 10 years. The recovery plan for threatened albatrosses and petrels will be the third recovery plan for these species under the EPBC Act, following the Recovery Plan for albatrosses and giant petrels made in 2001 (DEH 2001) and the National Recovery Plan for threatened albatrosses and giant petrels 2011–2016 made in 2011 (DSEWPC 2011a, 2011b).

2.2    Albatross and petrel species referred to in recovery plan

The taxonomy of albatrosses and petrels has benefited from a significant amount of new taxonomic information that has become available since the initial recovery plan for albatrosses and petrels. The recovery plan uses the taxonomy adopted by ACAP for a variety of reasons including its international standing, use of the most recent data, and review processes. The ACAP taxonomy is the same as that used by the IUCN for the Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN 2021) and the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS).

Table 1 indicates the relationship between the ACAP taxonomy, and the taxonomy used under the EPBC Act for the albatross and petrel species referred to in the recovery plan. The use of the ACAP taxonomy does not substantially or practically alter the protection, conservation and management actions contained in the plan.

Table 1: Albatross and petrel species referred to in the National Recovery Plan for albatrosses and petrels.

Nomenclature for albatross and petrel species referred to in the recovery plan		Threatened species listing under Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth)
Species	Common name	Category	Species
Diomedea amsterdamensis	Amsterdam Albatross	Endangered	Diomedea amsterdamensis
Diomedea antipodensis	Antipodean Albatross	Vulnerable	Diomedea antipodensis
			Diomedea antipodensis gibsoni
Diomedea dabbenena	Tristan Albatross	Endangered	Diomedea dabbenena
Diomedea epomophora	Southern Royal Albatross	Vulnerable	Diomedea epomophora
Diomedea exulans	Wandering Albatross	Vulnerable	Diomedea exulans
Diomedea sanfordi	Northern Royal Albatross	Endangered	Diomedea sanfordi
Macronectes giganteus	Southern Giant Petrel	Endangered	Macronectes giganteus
Macronectes halli	Northern Giant Petrel	Vulnerable	Macronectes halli
Phoebetria fusca	Sooty Albatross	Vulnerable	Phoebetria fusca
Phoebetria palpebrata	Light-mantled Albatross	Not listed	Phoebetria palpebrata
Procellaria aequinoctialis	White-chinned Petrel	Not listed	Procellaria aequinoctialis
Procellaria cinerea	Grey Petrel	Not listed	Procellaria cinerea
Procellaria parkinsoni	Black Petrel	Not listed	Procellaria parkinsoni
Procellaria westlandica	Westland Petrel	Not listed	Procellaria westlandica
Thalassarche bulleri	Buller's Albatross	Vulnerable	Thalassarche bulleri
			Thalassarche bulleri platei
Thalassarche carteri	Indian Yellow-nosed Albatross	Vulnerable	Thalassarche carteri
Thalassarche cauta	Shy Albatross	Endangered	Thalassarche cauta
Thalassarche chlororhynchos	Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatross	Not listed	Thalassarche chlororhynchos
Thalassarche chrysostoma	Grey-headed Albatross	Endangered	Thalassarche chrysostoma
Thalassarche eremita	Chatham Albatross	Endangered	Thalassarche eremita
Thalassarche impavida	Campbell Albatross	Vulnerable	Thalassarche impavida
Thalassarche melanophris	Black-browed Albatross	Vulnerable	Thalassarche melanophris
Thalassarche salvini	Salvin's Albatross	Vulnerable	Thalassarche salvini
Thalassarche steadi	White-capped Albatross	Vulnerable	Thalassarche steadi

2.3    Review of previous recovery plan

A five-year review of the National Recovery Plan for threatened albatrosses and giant petrels 2011–2016 was conducted with the inclusion of managers, experts and stakeholders (Department of the Environment 2016). The review noted that within the five-year timeframe of the plan there was insufficient time to determine accurately population trajectories of threatened albatrosses and giant petrels. Caution was therefore appropriate when assessing the population status of the 21 albatross and giant petrel species referred to in the plan.

The Review found that of the 28 recovery criteria in the recovery plan, four had been met, while progress had been made against 20 criteria. Recognising that the recovery actions extended well beyond the five-year timeline for the review of the plan, the Review recommended that a future plan should include longer-term objectives and actions. Limited progress against objectives was found to be due to the expected long-term time scale for population recovery and criteria that were infeasible, impractical or unrealistic. The Review noted that of the 12 albatross and petrel breeding populations where monitoring occurred during the life of the plan, one was increasing, two remained stable or increasing, one population was too small to determine its trend, the status of three populations were unknown and five populations were declining. No data had been collected for the remaining eight populations for over 10 years. This was attributed to the logistical difficulties concerning access to those populations. Addressing the lack of data on conservation status for these remaining eight species was identified as a priority action for this recovery plan.

The successful eradication from Macquarie Island by 2014 of pest populations of European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), ship rats (Rattus rattus) and house mice (Mus musculus) was identified as a major achievement during the review of the recovery plan. This was the largest island eradication project attempted at that time (Hunt G (Minister for the Environment) 2014, Parks and Wildlife Service 2014, Alderman et al. 2019). The Review further noted cats (Felis catus) had been eradicated from Macquarie Island by 2002 (Robinson & Copson 2014).

The Review highlighted that the recovery plan provided a strong policy foundation for action domestically to conduct ongoing monitoring of albatrosses and petrels at key breeding sites in Tasmania (Albatross Island, the Mewstone and Pedra Branca) and at Macquarie Island in the sub-Antarctic.

The Review stressed that in the absence of effective international conservation action, Australia would be unable to secure the conservation of threatened albatrosses and petrels that breed and forage within Australia's jurisdiction. The Review recognised that the recovery plan provided an important framework for international conservation and fisheries forums to establish and improve conservation measures concerning seabird bycatch mitigation in fisheries, and to improve conservation of breeding populations on land.

The Review noted there had been varying degrees of implementation by regional fisheries bodies of conservation measures for seabird bycatch mitigation, and collection of bycatch information through scientific observer programs, and highlighted that further international efforts would be required to improve the effectiveness of these measures over time. Australia's influence and engagement in the work of ACAP was also considered highly influential in addressing threats to albatross and petrel species on land and at sea, including the development of best practice measures and improved conservation advice for range states, as well as states whose vessels fished in the range of albatrosses and petrels.

The Review noted that the threat of marine debris including plastics had increased in significance during the life of the recovery plan, and there is now particular concern about the threat posed by marine plastics to seabirds in the Tasman Sea (Wilcox et al. 2015), an area of high abundance for Australia's albatross and petrel species. The understanding of the potential effects of climate change, particularly concerning the endemic Shy Albatross (Thomson et al. 2015), has also increased during the life of the plan. This threat will likely assume greater significance in future for all species covered by this plan.

The Review concluded that a recovery plan for albatrosses and petrels should remain until such time as populations of affected threatened species breeding and/or foraging in Australia's jurisdiction have improved to the point where the populations are considered secure. The Review considered that the preponderance of key threats to albatross and petrel species remained, with the important exception of feral pest rabbit and rodent species on Macquarie Island that had been eradicated within the life of the existing plan. The potential scope and scale of marine debris including mircoplastics as a conservation threat had increased in light of improved information, however their effects on albatrosses and petrels at the population level would require further research.

The Review considered that an updated recovery plan should include objectives and actions that were ‘SMART’ (specific, measureable, achievable, realistic and timely) and be designed to advance the recovery of threatened albatross and petrel species over the longer term, in line with timeframes for population-level changes to be detected. The Review considered that additional species should be included encompassing those petrel species breeding and foraging in Australian jurisdiction that are listed under the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels. The Review concluded that a Recovery Team should be established to discuss implementation and effectiveness of recovery plan actions. The establishment, governance and terms of reference, participation, and frequency of meetings of this forum should be consistent with those for recovery teams for threatened species.

The outcomes of the Review have informed the development of this recovery plan with objectives and actions building upon previous recovery efforts.

2.4    Legal framework

Domestic legal frameworks

Commonwealth and state legislation affords protection to threatened albatrosses and petrels in Australia. The species referred to in this recovery plan may be listed as threatened under one or more relevant statutes of the Commonwealth, Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria, Tasmania, New South Wales and Queensland:

·      Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth)

·      Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016 (WA)

·      National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 (SA)

·      Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 (Vic)

·      Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 (Tas)

·      Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016 (NSW)

·      Nature Conservation Act 1992 (Qld)

The status of each species under Commonwealth and state legislation is set out in Appendix B.

The recovery plan has been developed jointly by the Commonwealth and relevant states under Part 13 of the EPBC Act, and Part 7 of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Regulations 2000 (Cth). These set out the content and consultation requirements for making a recovery plan including identifying threats to affected species, and habitats critical to the survival of the of the species.

The importance of albatross and petrel breeding sites in Australia's jurisdiction to the survival of Australia's albatross and petrel species has led to the introduction of access restrictions for all breeding locations in Australia's jurisdiction that are implemented through:

·      National Parks and Reserves Management Act 2002 (Tas)

·      Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area (TWWHA) Management Plan 2016 (DPIPWE 2016)

·      Macquarie Island Nature Reserve and World Heritage Area Management Plan (Parks and Wildlife Service 2006)

·      Heard Island and McDonald Islands Act 1953 (Cth)

·      Environment Protection and Management Ordinance 1987 (Cth)

·      Heard Island and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve Management Plan 2014-2024 (Commonwealth of Australia 2014)

·      Antarctic Specially Protected Area No. 102 (Rookery Islands, Holme Bay, Mac.Robertson Land): Revised Management Plan (ATCM 2015)

·      Antarctic Specially Protected Area No. 160, Frazier Islands, Windmill Islands, Wilkes Land, East Antarctica (ATCM 2013)

·      Antarctic Specially Protected Area No. 167, Hawker Island, Princess Elizabeth Land (ATCM 2016).

Conservation arrangements

Australia's national efforts under the recovery plan contribute to global work to protect albatrosses and petrels and conserve their biodiversity by range States (Commonwealth of Australia 2019a). The plan assists in the implementation of Australia's international environmental responsibilities, in particular to give effect to Australia's obligations under the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels (ACAP) and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). As well, the following additional international and regional conservation arrangements are of relevance to the plan:

·      Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention)

·      Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR)

·      Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS)

·      Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (Madrid Protocol).

Fisheries arrangements

The recovery plan also contributes towards addressing the impacts from high seas fishing activities affecting albatrosses and petrels as associated and dependent species. The following international and regional fisheries arrangements and instruments are of relevance to the plan:

·      Agreement for the Establishment of the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC)

·      Convention for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna (CCSBT)

·      Convention on the Conservation and Management of Highly Migratory Fish Stocks in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean (WCPFC)

·      Convention on the Conservation and Management of High Seas Fishery Resources in the South Pacific Ocean (SPRFMO)

·      Southern Indian Ocean Fisheries Agreement (SIOFA)

·      Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (FAO 1995)

·      International Plan of Action for reducing incidental catch of seabirds in longline fisheries (FAO 1999)

·      Fishing Operations 2. Best Practices to Reduce Incidental Catch of Seabirds in Capture Fisheries (FAO 2009).

2.5    Albatross and petrel ecology

Albatrosses and petrels are mostly surface seizing, pelagic predators that feed on live and moribund prey (Barton 1979, Harper et al. 1985, Harper 1987, Wood 1992, Croxall & Prince 1994). The ability to dive varies across species and involves either surface plunge dives or shallow dives to catch prey (generally <15 m) (Prince et al. 1994a, Hedd et al. 1997, Hedd et al. 2001, Robertson et al. 2006). Some species also prey on other seabirds and scavenge carrion on land (Cherel et al. 2002, Le Bohec et al. 2003).

Albatrosses and petrels are wide-ranging, opportunistic predators. Birds will forage singly and will aggregate in larger numbers where there is a rich food source (Dixon 1933, Brothers 1991). Individual species prefer to feed during the day or at night (often by moonlight) (Hedd et al. 2001, Phalan et al. 2007). Albatrosses and petrels have a diverse diet, depending on the availability of food, including cephalopods, crustaceans, cyclostomes, fish and tunicates, although diet is not well known for several species (Cherel & Klages 1998, Green et al. 1998, Hedd & Gales 2001, Xavier et al 2003a, 2003b). Albatrosses and petrels exhibit a tendency to follow fishing vessels, sometimes in large numbers involving various species (Dixon 1933, Brothers 1991). Competition for fisheries discards and baited hooks can be intense (van der Hoff 2001), with smaller birds subject to secondary attacks by other larger birds (Weimerskirch et al. 1986, Harper 1987, Brothers 1991).

Albatross and petrel species occurring in Australia's jurisdiction predominantly breed on remote, offshore islands in the higher latitudes, with the exception of the Northern Royal Albatross and Westland Petrel that breed on the South Island of New Zealand. The approach to nesting varies between and within species. Some breeding pairs will form solitary nests while others will nest in loose to dense colonies, or in mixed colonies with other seabird species. Nest construction varies between and within species. Nesting strategies include the construction of cupped pedestal mounds, nesting on the ground, slopes and cliffs, and in burrows, as well as nesting among tussock-grass, ferns, grassy meadows, scrub, and under forest canopies.

2.6    Habitats regarded as critical to the survival of the threatened species

Albatrosses and petrels are extremely site-faithful (Bried & Jouventin 1999, Gauthier et al. 2010) and the populations currently breeding at identified locations in Australia's jurisdiction are unlikely to breed elsewhere in our jurisdiction (Baker et al 2002). These remote offshore islands therefore should be regarded as habitat that is potentially critical to the survival of albatrosses and petrels in Australia (additional information on each breeding site is provided in Appendix C).

Albatross and petrel species breeding sites in Australia's jurisdiction are as follows:

• Shy Albatross (endemic) breeds on three offshore islands adjacent to Tasmania: Albatross Island, the Mewstone and Pedra Branca (Brothers et al. 2001, ACAP 2013a, 2013d, 2013e, DPIPWE 2021b)

• Black-browed Albatross, Grey-headed Albatross, Grey Petrel, Light-mantled Albatross, Wandering Albatross, Northern Giant Petrel, and Southern Giant Petrel breed on Macquarie Island in the sub-Antarctic (Brothers et al. 2001, ACAP 2013b, DPIPWE 2021a)

• Black-browed Albatross breeds on Bishop and Clerk Islets in the sub-Antarctic adjacent to Macquarie Island (Brothers et al. 2001, Brothers & Ledingham 2008, ACAP 2014)

• Black-browed Albatross, Light-mantled Albatross, and Southern Giant Petrel breed on the External Territory of Heard Island and McDonald Islands in the sub-Antarctic (ACAP 2013c, 2013f). Potentially, a small population of Wandering Albatross might be present on Heard Island (Kirkwood et al. 1989), although only a nest mound was found during a visit in 2001 (ACAP 2013c)

• Southern Giant Petrel breed in the AAT at Giganteus Island (Mac.Robertson Land), Hawker Island (Princess Elizabeth Land), and Frazier Islands (Wilkes Land) (ATCM 2013, 2015, 2016).

The location and extent of albatross and petrel breeding sites in Australia's jurisdiction are provided in Table 2 and under each species profile (see Appendix A). Details of each of the habitats that are regarded as critical to the survival of threatened albatross and petrel species breeding within Australia's jurisdiction are set out in Appendix C.

Table 2: Albatross and petrel breeding site locations in Australia’s jurisdiction.

Site	Species	Location	Coordinates	Approximate size
Albatross Island	Shy Albatross	70 km north-west of Stanley, Tasmania	40°23'S, 144°39'E	33 ha
Mewstone	Shy Albatross	123 km south-west of Hobart, Tasmania	43°44'S, 146°22'E	13 ha
Pedra Branca	Shy Albatross	111 km south-west of Hobart Tasmania	43°52'S, 146°58'E	2.5 ha
Macquarie Island	Black-browed Albatross, Grey-headed Albatross, Grey Petrel, Light-mantled Albatross, Wandering Albatross, Northern Giant Petrel, Southern Giant Petrel	1500 km south-east of Hobart, Tasmania	54°37'S, 158°51'E	13,000 ha
Bishop and Clerk Islets	Black-browed Albatross	33 km south of Macquarie Island	55°06', 158°41E	60 ha
Heard Island	Black-browed Albatross, Light-mantled Albatross, Southern Giant Petrel	4100 km south-west of Perth, Western Australia	53°06'S, 73°32'E	36,800 ha
McDonald Islands	Black-browed Albatross, Light-mantled Albatross, Southern Giant Petrel	43 km west of Heard Island	53°02'S, 73°36'E	360 ha approx.
Giganteus Island	Southern Giant Petrel	16 km west from Mawson station, Mac.Robertson Land, East Antarctica	67°34'S, 62°29'E	16 ha
Hawker Island	Southern Giant Petrel	7 km south-west of Davis station, Princess Elizabeth Land, East Antarctica	68°38'S, 77°51'E	190 ha
Frazier Islands	Southern Giant Petrel	16 km north-west of Casey station, Wilkes Land, East Antarctica	66°13'S, 110°10'E	60 ha

Habitat identified as critical to the survival of the Grey-headed Albatross, Shy Albatross, and Wandering Albatross was identified when the initial recovery plan for albatrosses and petrels was developed in 2001 (DEH 2001, 2002, DAWE 2020). Albatross Island, the Mewstone and Pedra Branca comprise the only known breeding habitat for the endemic Shy Albatross. Macquarie Island is the only known suitable breeding habitat under Australia's jurisdiction for the Grey-headed Albatross, and Wandering Albatross. These locations are included in the Register of Critical Habitat under section 207A of the EPBC Act in recognition that the locations are breeding habitat critical to the survival of the species in Australia's jurisdiction, and these populations are important to ensuring the long-term viability and genetic diversity of the species (DEH 2002).

2.7    Key Biodiversity Areas

The Key Biodiversity Areas (KBA) program aims to identify, map, monitor and conserve the critical sites for global biodiversity across the planet. This process is guided by a Global Standard for the Identification of Key Biodiversity Areas, the KBA Standard (IUCN 2016). It establishes a consultative, science-based process for the identification of globally important sites for biodiversity worldwide. Sites qualify as KBAs of global importance if they meet one or more of 11 criteria in five categories: threatened biodiversity, geographically restricted biodiversity, ecological integrity, biological processes, and irreplaceability. The KBA criteria have quantitative thresholds and can be applied to species and ecosystems in terrestrial, inland water and marine environments. These thresholds ensure that only those sites with significant populations of a species or extent of an ecosystem are identified as global KBAs. Species or ecosystems that are the basis for identifying a KBA are referred to as Trigger species.

The global KBA partnership supports nations to identify KBAs within their country by working with a range of governmental and non-governmental organisations scientific species experts and conservation planners. Defining KBAs and their management within protected areas or through Other Effective Area-based Conservation Measures (OECMS) will assist the Australian Government to meet its obligations to international treaties, such as the Convention on Biological Diversity. KBAs are also integrated in industry standards such as those applied by the Forest Stewardship Council or the Equator Principles adopted by financial institutions to determine environmental risk in projects.

The initial identification of a site as a KBA is unrelated to its legal status as it is determined primarily based on the distribution of one or more Trigger species at the site. However, existing protected areas will often inform the final KBA delineation, because KBAs are defined with site management in mind (KBA Standards and Appeals Committee 2019). In practice, if an existing protected area roughly matches a KBA, it will generally be used for delineating the KBA. Many KBAs overlap wholly with existing protected area boundaries, including sites designated under international conventions (for example, Ramsar and World Heritage) and areas protected at national and local levels (for example, national parks). However, not all KBAs are protected areas and not all protected areas are KBAs. It is recognised that other management approaches may also be appropriate to safeguard KBAs. The identification of a site as a KBA highlights the site's exceptional status and critical importance on a global scale for the persistence of the biodiversity values for which it has been declared for (particular Trigger species or habitats) and implies that the site should be managed in ways that ensure the persistence of these elements. More information about KBAs is available at: keybiodiversityareas.org/home.

The global KBA partnership currently recognises four Key Biodiversity Areas as important for albatross and petrel conservation in Australia's jurisdiction and to support the long-term persistence of the species. KBAs are also undergoing a regular revision to ensure changes in IUCN Red List status, taxonomic changes, local population trends, as well as increased knowledge of the species are reflected accurately in the KBA network. As such, over time, additional KBAs may be recognised for their importance for albatrosses and petrels or new KBAs may be declared for these and other taxa. Detailed KBA Factsheets, including boundary maps, population estimates of trigger species and scientific references for these seven areas (and other KBAs) are available from the World Database of Key Biodiversity Areas (BirdLife International 2020). The four KBAs in Australia's jurisdiction for albatrosses and petrels include:

Tasmania

·      Albatross Island and Black Pyramid Rock — two tiny islands offshore from the north-west of Tasmania. Albatross Island (33 ha) is very rocky, with a coastline of eroded boulders, gulches and caves and a short cover of grasses and herbs across the interior. Black Pyramid Rock (40 ha) is a basaltic rock stack surrounded by steep cliffs, steep grassy slopes and a small central plateau. It is sparsely vegetated as the Australasian Gannet (Morus serrator) has taken most vegetation as nesting material. The endemic Shy Albatross that breeds on Albatross Island is a trigger species for the KBA, with 30-35% of the world population breeding at this location.

·      Mewstone — a rocky oval-shaped 9 ha island, about 20 km south of Red Point, between Southport and Port Davey in south-west Tasmania. Composed of Muscovite granite, which is unknown elsewhere in the Southwest National Park, the island is very steep and mostly bare jagged rock. The few plant species present on the island are confined to crevices and cavities in the rock where soil has accumulated. The endemic Shy Albatross that breeds on the Mewstone is a trigger species for the KBA, with more than 60% of the world population breeding at this location.

·      Macquarie Island —a sub-Antarctic island located approximately halfway between Antarctica and Australia, about 1450 km south-east of Tasmania and 1300 km north of the Antarctic continent. The listing includes the island and the nearby Judge and Clerk Islets and Bishop and Clerk Islets. The island lies just to the north of an oceanic boundary, the Antarctic Polar Frontal Zone or Antarctic Convergence, where cold polar waters meet warmer sub-Antarctic waters. The island is 34 km long and up to 5 km wide and consists of a long plateau, 200-350 m above sea level, surrounded on all sides by steep slopes or cliffs. The island is free from invasive introduced species, after successive eradication efforts. The islands and seas to three nautical miles are a Nature Reserve, the islands and seas to 12 nautical miles are a World Heritage Area, and 162,000 km² of seas to the east are in the Macquarie Island Marine Park. The Wandering Albatross, Light-mantled Albatross, Grey-headed Albatross, Black-browed Albatross, Southern Giant Petrel, and Northern Giant Petrel all breed on Macquarie Island and are trigger species for the KBA.

Commonwealth

·      Heard Island and McDonald Islands — islands forming an External Territory in the Southern Ocean, over 4000 km south-west of Western Australia and about 1500 km north of Antarctica. Heard Island is 368 km² and dominated by Big Ben, an active volcano rising to Mawson Peak, at 2745 m. About 70% of the island is covered in snow and glacial ice and black volcanic rocks, with vegetation and bird nests and colonies restricted to the coastal fringe. The McDonald Islands group (~3.6 km², max altitude 230 m, about 43 km west of Heard Island) includes McDonald Island and other smaller islands and islets. McDonald Island is also volcanic; since 1980, it has doubled in size and grown in height by almost 100 m as a result of lava flows in the 1990s. The islands form part of the 65,000 km² Heard Island and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve and World Heritage Area that includes the islands, all inshore waters to 12 nautical miles and some offshore waters. The Wandering Albatross, Light-mantled Albatross and Southern Giant Petrel breed on these islands and are trigger species for the KBA.

1. Threats

3.1    Nature of threats

Albatross and petrel life history strategies are a major factor influencing their conservation. Procellariiform seabirds including the albatross and petrel species in this recovery plan are characterised by their longevity, naturally high adult survival rates, delayed sexual maturity and low fecundity (Warham 1990). Over the 60 years from 1950 to 2010, 324 monitored seabird populations have decreased by nearly 70% worldwide (Paleczny et al. 2015). Changes in adult mortality rates have greater impact on Procellariiform populations than other demographic factors (Croxall & Rothery 1991). Pelagic seabirds are more threatened than coastal resident seabirds, as they tend to have small breeding populations and many are restricted to single islands or island groups (Croxall et al. 2012). When a population cannot be stabilised through local recruitment or immigration, any additional mortality is likely to lead to a decrease of a population (Longcore & Smith 2013). The breeding season of albatrosses and petrels is typically protracted, and if during this time, one parent dies or is killed the death of the dependent offspring may occur, and a loss of breeding opportunities will occur until a new pair bond is established, further jeopardising population viability (Weimerskirch & Jouventin 1987, Croxall et al. 1990). Human activities, such as fishing, disturbance, development and pollution, as well as direct take, either kill seabirds directly or alter the structure and function of their ecosystem (Baum & Worm 2009). Significant modification of their breeding and foraging habitats due to changes to climate have the potential to also affect Australia's albatross and petrel populations directly and indirectly (Tweedie & Bergstrom 2000, Chown et al. 2005, Thost & Allison 2005, Thost & Truffer 2008, Thomson et al. 2015). Albatrosses and petrels are also susceptible to a wide range of diseases. However, the frequency of occurrence and impact of infectious diseases remains largely unknown (Uhart et al. 2018).

Albatrosses and petrels are subject to an array of threats throughout all stages of their life history (Dias et al 2019). These comprise terrestrial threats at breeding sites and marine threats that reduce the survivorship of albatrosses and petrels and/or their capacity to reproduce successfully (Baker et al. 2002, Phillips et al. 2016) (Table 4). Various aspects of albatross and petrel biology and ecology are still not well known. Such understandings are vital to the interpretation and measurement of the likely impact of threats and are important for population viability analysis and other modelling. Despite considerable work, particularly concerning foraging distribution (BirdLife International 2004), details of the breeding biology, feeding ecology, foraging distribution and population trend of many albatross and petrel species are still lacking because of a lack of long-term studies (Phillips et al. 2016). Cumulatively, these terrestrial and marine threats are putting the long-term viability of many species at risk. The threats and issues discussed below are grouped according to subject matter, and do not necessarily appear in order of importance.

The key terrestrial and marine threats to the survival of albatrosses and petrels are set out below. The list is not exhaustive, but identifies the main threats likely to cause one or more of the following adverse impacts affecting the species:

• direct mortality

• indirect loss of reproductive opportunities

• disturbance including effects on nesting and/or foraging behaviour

• morbidity including from injury, disease, and/or contamination

• disorientation through artificial light and ship strikes

• avoidance behaviours

• abandonment of nests

• damage to nesting habitat

• loss of nesting habitat.

The information about the threats to the conservation of albatrosses and petrels is synthesised from a range of sources, noting that this information is likely to change over the life of this recovery plan. Prior to using any listing status against a species, please refer to the threatened species and ecological communities or Species Profile and Threats Database (SPRAT) webpages for current information. These data represent EPBC listed species that have been mapped by the Department and are available for public use, subject to Sensitive Species Policies, as a result of which some maps may be withheld.

Up-to-date information on particular species may be found at the following sources in particular:

·      Species Profile and Threats Database (SPRAT) of the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water

·      Species Assessments developed for the 22 albatross and nine petrel species listed under the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels.

·      Red List of Threatened Species of the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

·      The Action Plan for Australian Birds 2020 (Baker & Garnett 2021).

• Species Profiles distribution maps (see Appendix A) Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water’s Species of National Environmental Significance datasets.

NB. The distribution maps show modelled national distributions within the Australian context to support assessment of environmental impacts under the EPBC Act. Species distributions are indicative and not meant for local assessment. Planning or investment decisions at a local scale should seek some form of ground-truthing to confirm the existence of the species or ecological community at locations of interest.

3.2    Threat prioritisation

Each of the threats to albatrosses and petrels has been assessed to determine the risk posed to albatross and petrel populations using a risk matrix. This in turn determines the priority for actions outlined below. The threats were considered in the context of the current management regimes. The impact of that threat has been assessed assuming that existing management measures continue to be applied appropriately. If management regimes change, then the level of risk associated with threats may also change.

The risk matrix considers the likelihood of an incident occurring and the consequences of that incident. Threats may act differently in different parts of the species range and at different times of year. Population-wide threats are generally considered to present a higher risk.

The risk matrix uses a qualitative assessment drawing on peer reviewed literature and expert opinion. In some cases, the consequences of activities are unknown. In these cases, the precautionary approach has been applied. Levels of risk and the associated priority for action are defined as follows:

Very high — immediate mitigation action required.

High — mitigation action and an adaptive management plan required.

Moderate — obtain additional information and develop mitigation action if required.

Low — monitor the threat occurrence and reassess threat level if likelihood or consequences change.

Table 3: Risk prioritisation

Likelihood of occurrence	Consequences
	Not significant	Minor	Moderate	Major	Catastrophic
Almost certain	Low	Moderate	Very High	Very High	Very High
Likely	Low	Moderate	High	Very High	Very High
Possible	Low	Moderate	High	Very High	Very High
Unlikely	Low	Low	Moderate	High	Very High
Rare or Unknown	Low	Low	Moderate	High	Very High

Categories for likelihood are defined as follows:

Almost certain — expected to occur every year.

Likely — expected to occur at least once every five years.

Possible — might occur at some time.

Unlikely — such events are known to have occurred on a worldwide basis but only a few times.

Rare or Unknown — may occur only in exceptional circumstances, OR it is currently unknown how often the incident will occur.

Categories for consequences are defined as follows:

Not significant — no long-term effect on individuals or populations.

Minor — individuals are adversely affected but no effect at population level.

Moderate — population recovery stalls or reduces.

Major — population decreases.

Catastrophic — population extinction.

3.3    Terrestrial threats

Human disturbance

Threats from human disturbance at or adjacent to breeding sites including direct habitat destruction, damage, and disturbance, as well as interactions with built structures and artificial lighting.

Coastal development involves the progressive encroachment of natural coastal habitat for human use. Such development has occurred and may occur onshore or on offshore islands. Encroachment of this natural habitat may directly reduce areas used by albatrosses and petrels as breeding sites. Adjacent coastal development may disturb breeding sites due to increased ambient noise, artificial light pollution, and barriers to movement. Additionally, coastal development may directly damage or destroy nesting habitat. As well, disturbance, habitat damage and predation may occur if domestic animals are allowed to stray or enter previously undisturbed natural habitat that is used by albatrosses and petrels as breeding sites.

Australia's albatross and petrel breeding populations are located on remote, offshore islands where coastal development is not presently a significant concern. Prior use of offshore islands, such as for sealing and feather collecting, abated by the early 20th Century. Access to islands where there are breeding populations of albatrosses and petrels is prescribed. Although there are permanent research stations located on Macquarie Island, and near to each of the Frazier Islands, Giganteus Island and Hawker Island in the AAT, all human activities are subject to management plans that aim to avoid or minimise disturbance of albatross and petrel breeding sites.

Coastal development of wind farm turbine infrastructure is an emerging issue, with wind farm proposals being considered for sites along the southern Australian coastline, and on offshore islands, for example in Bass Strait.

Many of the breeding sites for albatross and petrel species that breed beyond Australia's jurisdiction are located on remote offshore islands (Croxall et al. 2012). At some of these locations there are also local human populations with associated direct and indirect impacts on the breeding sites. As well, on the South Island of New Zealand there are breeding populations of Northern Royal Albatross (at Taiaroa Head) (ACAP 2012o) and Westland Petrel (at Punakaiki) (ACAP 2012w), which are also at risk of human disturbance.

Wildlife tourism is a worldwide phenomenon that attracts many visitors, in the early 2000s, more than 700 million usually organised trips were offered worldwide (Higginbottom 2004). However, wildlife tourism takes many forms ranging from non-organised or supervised wildlife observations or interactions to guided and carefully managed ecotourism ventures (Packer & Ballantyne 2013). Among wildlife tourism activities, bird watching ranks very high, and seabird colonies are particularly attractive tourist destinations (for example, Yorio et al. 2001). Wildlife tourism, recreational boating and fishing may disturb albatrosses and petrels at their breeding sites, as well as foraging birds adjacent to these locations.

Introduced invasive species

Threats from non-native species including predation, direct habitat destruction, degradation, damage, or disturbance.

Albatrosses and petrels are predominantly sensitive to terrestrial habitat changes that affect breeding sites. The progressive spread of human activity across the globe has led to the introduction of non-native animal and plant species to many previously pristine, remote offshore islands including those supporting albatross and petrel populations. While some non-native species were brought to these locations for food, or as domestic pets, other introductions occurred incidentally (for example, rats and mice on board ships). Introduced species may become pest species and threaten seabird populations on affected islands (Jouventin & Weimerskirch 1991, Thiebot et al. 2014).

Albatrosses and petrels are especially vulnerable to introduced mammals because of their lack of effective anti-predator behaviour, their habit of building their nests on the ground or in borrows and leaving chicks unattended during long-range foraging trips, and their low annual productivity (Baker et al. 2002). Invasive fauna may affect seabird populations via nest predation, nest destruction and habitat modification, with introduced grazing and browsing pest species impacting nesting sites by reducing cover, trampling nests and burrows, and increasing the risk of landslips (Croxall et al. 1984, Moors & Atkinson 1984, Robertson & Bell 1984).

Invasive flora species may affect breeding sites of albatrosses and petrels. The invasive flora causes adverse habitat modification, particularly through overgrowing nesting habitat, and creating a barrier to accessing breeding sites, including inhibiting access to burrows.

All breeding sites in Australia's jurisdiction are presently free from introduced species of fauna and flora that may cause population level impacts to albatross and petrel populations. Previous eradication efforts have eliminated feral cats, rabbits, rats and mice from Macquarie Island, the only breeding site in Australia where introduced pest species threatened local populations of albatrosses and petrels, with populations recovering at differing rates (Parks & Wildlife Service 2014, Buller et al in review a, in review b).

While Australian breeding sites are currently free of predators, the risk of introductions is always present, particularly where islands are visited regularly by humans. Ongoing vigilance is needed, in particular, concerning maintaining the human presence at Macquarie Island station, and during occasional visits by tourist vessels to the island, as well as research and management and tourist vessel visits to other islands. Australian and Tasmanian government agencies are working together to achieve the highest level of biosecurity for transport of goods and people to Macquarie Island. The danger to already threatened populations of albatrosses and petrels, in particular, could increase if the introduced pest free status of any breeding site was lost. Quarantine and other regulations are in place at all Australian breeding sites to minimise this threat.

Introduced invasive species remain a significant problem at breeding sites for many of the albatross and petrel species that forage in Australian waters but breed beyond Australia's jurisdiction.

Competition with native species

Threats from competition with native wildlife including direct damage to nesting habitat and predation.

Albatrosses and petrels, and many other seabirds typically occupy isolated, often relatively small islands. As a consequence, competition (both within and between species) for limited nest space can be intense, particularly on smaller islands.

Interspecific competition for nest space is a potential threat to the Shy Albatrosses breeding population on Pedra Branca where nest sites are limited (DPIPWE 2021b). The number of Australasian Gannets on Pedra Branca has been increasing, while the number of Shy Albatrosses at this location has been decreasing (Bunce et al. 2002, Alderman et al. 2011). Interactions between gannets and albatrosses are still poorly understood, but gannets may be removing nesting material, and displacing Shy Albatross from potential nesting sites, particularly in areas where gannets outnumber albatrosses. Further investigation is underway into the nature and extent of the inter-species interaction, and to explore management options. Following a successful trial on Albatross Island in 2017, 18 artificial nests made of aerated concrete were deployed on Pedra Branca in 2019 at four different sites with cameras set up to monitor each location (DPIPWE 2021b). It is hoped that the artificial nests will improve the breeding success of Shy Albatross nesting on Pedra Branca, as occurred on Albatross Island, where breeding success on artificial nests was found to be double that of natural nests (DPIPWE 2021b).

Note: Threats occurring in Australia’s jurisdiction are highlighted in bold.

Procellaria westlandica Westland Petrel Falla 1946

Family: Procellariidae

Taxonomy

Procellaria westlandica Falla 1946 is accepted nomenclature for the Westland Petrel. Originally Procellaria parkinsoni westlandica Falla 1946. The Westland Petrel was originally considered polytypic with Procellaria parkinsoni (Black Petrel) until Jackson (1958) proposed recognition at the specific level based on demographic differences, a view also supported by morphological and genetic differences (Marchant & Higgins 1990, Nunn & Stanley 1998). ACAP has concluded on advice from its Taxonomy Working Group that available data warrant recognition of the Westland Petrel at the specific level with the nomenclature widely accepted (Brooke et al. 2008, ACAP 2012w).

Current status of taxon

Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Commonwealth): not listed

Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016 (Western Australia): not listed

National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 (South Australia): not listed

Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 (Victoria): not listed

Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 (Tasmania): not listed

Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016 (New South Wales): not listed

Nature Conservation Act 1992 (Queensland): Least Concern

IUCN Red list of Threatened Species: Vulnerable

Action Plan for Australian Birds 2020: population visiting Australia Least Concern

Species description

A small Procellaria petrel, the Westland Petrel is approximately 50-55 cm in length, 0.9-1.4 kg in weight, with a wing length of 37-40 cm, and bill length of 46-53 mm (ACAP 2015, Menkhorst et al. 2017). Tubenosed; separate nostrils on a yellow plated bill with black tip. Combination of black and silver plumage that becomes browner with age, all black except for undersides of primaries (Onley & Scofield 2007, BirdLife International 2018m).

Life history

Breeding locality	Jurisdiction
Punakaiki	New Zealand

Endemic to New Zealand with one breeding site on the South Island at Punakaiki (ACAP 2012w). The Westland Petrel is an annual breeder when successful (Jackson 1958, Baker & Coleman 1977). Adults arrive at colonies from mid-February with females laying a single egg predominantly in May that hatches after incubation period of 8-9 weeks mostly in late July, with fledging of chicks occurring after 4-5 months in November-January ((Jackson 1958, Baker & Coleman 1977). Mean annual breeding success is 62% (ACAP 2012w). The Westland Petrel predominantly disperses eastwards across the Pacific Ocean to South America. Juveniles return to colonies when 3 years of age and commence breeding when birds are at least 5 years of age (Waugh et al. 2006). Generation length is estimated at 22.5 years (Bird et al. 2020).

Species distribution in Australia

Australia is within the foraging range of the Westland Petrel. An indicative distribution map is not available for this non-threatened species. Tracking studies and at-sea records indicate that dispersal from the breeding colonies is predominantly eastwards across the Pacific Ocean from 20-50°S to the coastline of Chile (BirdLife International 2004, Spear et al. 2005, ACAP 2012w), with some birds recorded in waters adjacent to south-east Australia (Baker et al. 2002).

Population estimates and trends

The global population trend is uncertain with no population trend information available for the species over three generations (BirdLife International 2018m). There were an estimated 6200 breeding pairs in 2019 (ACAP 2022).

Habitat critical to survival of species

The species is limited to one breeding site on the South Island of New Zealand at Punakaiki (ACAP 2012w).

Threats

The risk matrix for the Black Petrel is provided at Table 40, with the threats occurring in Australia's jurisdiction highlighted.

Table 40: Westland Petrel (Procellaria westlandica) risk matrix.

Likelihood of occurrence	Consequences
	Not significant	Minor	Moderate	Major	Catastrophic
Almost certain	Fisheries interactions: pelagic longline, demersal longline, artisanal Human disturbance: events due to artificial lighting, power line strikes, trampling of burrows Introduced pest species: predation by cats, rats, dogs, stoats, trampling of burrows and habitat degradation by cattle, goats
Likely	Climate variability and change: severe storms
Possible
Unlikely
Rare or Unknown	Human disturbance: take for food

Note: Threats occurring in Australia’s jurisdiction are highlighted in bold.

APPENDIX B: Status under Commonwealth and state threatened species legislation of albatross and petrel species referred to in the recovery plan

Species	Common name	Commonwealth	Western Australia	South Australia	Victoria	Tasmania	New South Wales	Queensland
		Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999	Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016	National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972	Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988	Threatened Species Protection Act 1995	Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016	Nature Conservation Act 1992
Diomedea amsterdamensis	Amsterdam Albatross	Endangered	Critically Endangered	—	—	—	—	Species not recorded in jurisdiction
Diomedea antipodensis	Antipodean Albatross	Vulnerable1	Endangered2	—	—	—	Vulnerable3	Vulnerable4
Diomedea dabbenena	Tristan Albatross	Endangered	Critically Endangered	—	—	—	—	Species not recorded in jurisdiction
Diomedea epomophora	Southern Royal Albatross	Vulnerable	Vulnerable	Vulnerable	Critically Endangered	—	—	—
Diomedea exulans	Wandering Albatross	Vulnerable	Vulnerable	Vulnerable	Critically Endangered	Endangered	Endangered	Vulnerable
Diomedea sanfordi	Northern Royal Albatross	Endangered	Endangered	Endangered	—	—	—	Species not recorded in jurisdiction
Macronectes giganteus	Southern Giant Petrel	Endangered	—	Vulnerable	Endangered	Vulnerable	Endangered	Endangered
Macronectes halli	Northern Giant Petrel	Vulnerable	—	—	Endangered	Rare	Vulnerable	Vulnerable
Phoebetria fusca	Sooty Albatross	Vulnerable	Endangered	Endangered	Critically Endangered	Rare	Vulnerable	Vulnerable
Phoebetria palpebrata	Light-mantled Albatross	—	—	Vulnerable	Critically Endangered5	Vulnerable	—	Least Concern
Procellaria aequinoctialis	White- chinned Petrel	—	Vulnerable	—	—	—	—	—
Procellaria cinerea	Grey Petrel	—	—	—	—	Endangered	—	—
Procellaria parkinsoni	Black Petrel	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Procellaria westlandica	Westland Petrel	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Thalassarche bulleri	Buller's Albatross	Vulnerable6	—	Vulnerable	Endangered	—	—	Vulnerable
Thalassarche carteri	Indian Yellow-nosed Albatross	Vulnerable	Endangered	Endangered	Endangered	—	—	Vulnerable
Thalassarche cauta	Shy Albatross	Endangered	Vulnerable7	Vulnerable8	Endangered	Vulnerable9	Vulnerable	Vulnerable
Thalassarche chlororhynchos	Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatross	—	Vulnerable	Endangered	—	—	—	—
Thalassarche chrysostoma	Grey-headed Albatross	Endangered	Vulnerable	Vulnerable	Endangered	Endangered	—	Endangered
Thalassarche eremita	Chatham Albatross	Endangered	—	—	—	—	—	Species not recorded in jurisdiction
Thalassarche impavida	Campbell Albatross	Vulnerable	Vulnerable	Vulnerable	—	—	—	Least Concern
Thalassarche melanophris	Black-browed Albatross	Vulnerable	Endangered	—	—	Endangered	Vulnerable	Least Concern
Thalassarche salvini	Salvin's Albatross	Vulnerable	Vulnerable	Vulnerable	—	—	—	Least Concern
Thalassarche steadi	White-capped Albatross	Vulnerable	Vulnerable10	—	—	—	—	Vulnerable

Notes:

1.   Includes Diomedea antipodensis and Diomedea gibsoni.

2.   As Diomedea antipodensis gibsoni.

3.   Includes Diomedea antipodensis and Diomedea antipodensis gibsoni.

4.   Includes Diomedea antipodensis antipodensis and Diomedea antipodensis gibsoni.

5.   As Light-mantled Sooty Albatross.

6.   Includes Thalassarche bulleri and Thalassarche bulleri platei.

7.   As Thalassarche cauta cauta.

8.   As Thalassarche cauta cauta.

9.   As Thalassarche cauta cauta.

10.  As Thalassarche cauta steadi.

APPENDIX C: Habitats that are regarded as critical to the survival of threatened albatross and petrel species breeding within Australia's jurisdiction

Under section 270 of the EPBC Act a recovery plan must, to the extent to which it is practicable to do so, identify the habitats that are regarded as critical to the survival of the threatened species. Albatrosses and petrels in Australia's jurisdiction use two broad categories of habitat: breeding habitat (remote islands) and foraging habitat (southern oceans). This section describes the habitat that is critical to their survival within areas under Australia's jurisdiction.

Breeding habitats

Albatrosses and petrels breed at only six localities under Australia's jurisdiction. These are:

• Macquarie Island (including Bishop and Clerk Islets)

• Albatross Island

• Pedra Branca

• The Mewstone

• Heard Island and McDonald Islands

• Australian Antarctic Territory at Giganteus Island, Hawker Island and the Frazier Islands.

These remote offshore islands constitute the only suitable breeding habitat under Australia's jurisdiction and should be regarded as habitat that is critical to the survival of albatrosses and petrels in Australia. Shy Albatross is endemic to Australia and the breeding habitats for this species (Albatross Island, the Mewstone, and Pedra Branca) comprise its entire breeding habitat. Macquarie Island, Heard Island and McDonald Islands and the AAT host several species of albatrosses and petrels. Many of these populations are very small and are critical for maintaining the genetic diversity necessary to ensure the viability of these species in Australia.

There are no other islands within Australia's jurisdiction that are considered to be potential or former breeding habitat for albatrosses and petrels.

A brief description is provided below about each albatross and petrel breeding location within Australia's jurisdiction including information on their protection status, geography, flora, fauna, and the effects of human occupation.

Macquarie Island (and Bishop and Clerk Islets): 54°37'S, 158°51'E and 55°06'S, 158°41'E, respectively

Species

The following albatross and petrel species covered by this recovery plan breed on Macquarie Island (and Bishop and Clerk Islets):

• Wandering Albatross

• Black-browed Albatross

• Grey-headed Albatross

• Light-mantled Albatross

• Southern Giant Petrel

• Northern Giant Petrel

• Grey Petrel.

Protection status

• designated a Biosphere Reserve in 1977

• designated a Nature Reserve in 1978

• Macquarie Island Management Plan implemented in 1991

• designated a World Heritage Area in 1997

Geography

Macquarie Island is located in the Southern Ocean, about 1500 km south-east of Hobart, Tasmania, 40 km from the Antarctic Convergence. This sub-Antarctic island is the exposed crest of the Macquarie Ridge. The island is 32 km long by 5 km wide at its broadest point and about 13 000 ha. It rises abruptly from the ocean to form an undulating plateau, usually between 200-300 m above sea level, with a maximum altitude of 433 m. The north-western portion of the island is fringed by a raised beach terrace 15 m above sea level and up to 1 km wide.

Bishop and Clerk Islets lie 37 km to the south of Macquarie Island. These small islets are poorly known because of difficulty of access. They are mostly barren rock less than 50 m high and are geologically similar to the main island (Selkirk et al. 1990).

Flora

There are no trees on Macquarie Island. However, there are 45 species of vascular plants, as well as numerous moss and lichen species. These species are often associated to form one of five vegetation communities: feldmark, grasslands, herbfield, fen and bog. Three plant species are endemic to Macquarie Island: Azorella macquariensis, Corybas dienemus, and Puccinellia macquariensis. Five introduced plant species have become naturalised (Selkirk et al. 1990). The cushion-like Colobanthus muscoides is the only vascular plant on Bishop and Clerk Islets (Parks & Wildlife Service 2006).

Fauna

Macquarie Island is inhabited by a large variety of wildlife. About 86,500 Southern Elephant Seal (Mirounga leonina), fur seals (Arctocephalus spp.), and around 3.5 million seabirds breed on the island (Selkirk et al. 1990). Seventy-two bird species have been recorded on Macquarie Island. Twenty seabird species breed on Macquarie Island, notably King Penguin (Aptenodytes patagonicus), endemic Royal Penguin (Eudyptes schlegeli), Southern Rockhopper Penguin (Eudyptes chrysocome) and Gentoo Penguin (Pygoscelis papua). Over a million birds attend a rookery at Hurd Point at the southern end of the island during the breeding season (Selkirk et al. 1990).

Albatross and petrel breeding locations

Wandering Albatross at Macquarie Island usually nest in a loose colony on moderately wind-exposed areas of the plateau edge up to an altitude of 250 m. The same nest is commonly re-used (Tickell 1985). Nests have been recorded along the western side of the island, extending around to the southern side at Petrel Peak and the northern side at Handspike Corner. Nests have also been recorded on the raised beach terrace areas, from the north-western corner to Aurora Cave. Black-browed Albatross is a colonial species and breeds in small numbers on South-West Point. Three small colonies and several solitary nests are located in this area. A larger population of Black-browed Albatrosses breed on Bishop and Clerk Islets (Brothers & Ledingham 2008). The Grey-headed Albatross forms dispersed colonies with the breeding population confined to the slopes on the southern side of Petrel Peak, West Rock and the slopes opposite West Rock. The majority of birds breed on the steep, tussocky southern slopes of Petrel Peak. The Light-mantled Albatross breeds solitarily or in loose colonies and has the largest breeding distribution of all the albatrosses on Macquarie Island. Nests are found at the northern end of the island around Bauer Bay, North Head and Sandy Bay. Nests are also found in the south around Caroline Cove, Hurd Point and Lusitania Bay. Southern Giant Petrels form loose breeding colonies on the coastal plateau or headlands, or on exposed flats, hillsides or ridge tops (Voisin 1988). Most of the adult birds roost communally on the coastal beaches and around lakes. Northern Giant Petrel establish solitary nests at low altitudes among dense tussock-grass on the coastal flats around the island (Gales & Brothers 1996). The Grey Petrel breed in loose colonies along the escarpment of the east and west coasts of the island, with the highest density of burrows at North Head.

Introduced species

Table 41 indicates that up to 2021, sixteen species of vertebrates are known to have been introduced to Macquarie Island since its discovery. Four of these species are still present on Macquarie Island, with rabbits, rats and mice eradicated from the island recently (Parks & Wildlife Service 2014). Sindel et al. (2017) identified three invasive, non-native plant species as well-established on the island: meadow grass (Poa annua), chickweed (Stellaria media) and starweed (Cerastium frontanum), none of which were identified as having a population-level impact on the albatross and petrel populations.

Table 41: Vertebrate animal species introduced to Macquarie Island.

Introduced species still present on Macquarie Island, 2021

Introduced species no longer present on Macquarie Island, 2021

common starling (Sturnus vulgaris)

common redpoll (Acanthis flammea)

European goldfinch (Carduelis carduelis)

mallard (Anas platyrhynchos)

European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)

ship rat (Rattus rattus)

house mouse (Mus musculus)

cat (Felis catus)

cow (Bos taurus)

dog (Canis familaris)

donkey (Equus asinus)

goat (Capra hircus)

horse (Equus caballus)

pig (Sus scrofa)

sheep (Ovis aries)

weka (Gallirallus australis)

Effects of human occupation

Macquarie Island has a long history of human impacts. Seal and penguin oil harvesters occupied the island from 1810 to 1920 (Cumpston 1968, Townrow 1988). Albatrosses and giant petrels were harvested for food throughout this time, particularly in the early years (Cumpston 1968). While the number of albatrosses and giant petrels taken by the early settlers is unknown, it is likely to have been excessive, given the extent that other species were exploited. For example, sealers killed over 80,000 Southern Elephant Seals within the first 20 years of occupation, with fur seals completely eliminated from Macquarie Island after 25 years of exploitation (recolonising the island from the 1960s) (Rounsevell & Brothers 1984, Hindell & Burton 1988).

Wekas were introduced to Macquarie Island by the sealers as a source of food. These aggressive birds preyed upon penguin chicks, burrow-nesting petrels and invertebrates. An eradication program for wekas began in 1985 and ended when the last weka on the island was shot in 1988 (Copson 1988). Feral cats and rodents were recorded on the island by the 1820s and 1880s, respectively. Recent pest control programs ensured cats were eradicated by 2002, and rodents by 2014. Rabbits were introduced to the island in the 1870s and significantly modified the distribution of vegetation alliances, particularly the grasslands (Rounsevell & Brothers 1984). Rabbit control commenced in 1978 with the island declared free from rabbits in 2014, with subsequent recovery of plant communities (Parks & Wildlife Service 2014).

Few historical structures remain on the island. The modern station, located on the Isthmus, is comprised of over 40 buildings and structures for scientific and tourism purposes. There are also some field huts located elsewhere on the island (Parks & Wildlife Service 2006).

The Macquarie Island Nature Reserve and World Heritage Area Management Plan 2006 provides guidelines preventing activities likely to impact upon wildlife on the island (Parks & Wildlife Service 2006).

Albatross Island: 40°23'S, 144°39'E

Species

The following albatross species breeds on Albatross Island:

• Shy Albatross.

Protection status

• designated a Nature Reserve in 1981

• Albatross Island Management Plan under development

Geography

Albatross Island is located in western Bass Strait, 70 km northwest of Stanley. The small island is only 1100 m long, by 200 m wide, comprising 33 ha. The rocky island rises steeply from the surrounding sea to a height of about 35 m. A deep 'gulch' runs through the short axis of the island near its northern end (Green 1974).

Flora

Twenty-three plant species, including two small shrub species, have been found on the island.

Fauna

Albatross Island once contained a large population of fur seals before sealers exterminated the population. Fur seals now regularly haul out on Albatross Island. Shy Albatross, Fairy Prion (Pachyptila turtur), Little Penguin (Eudyptula minor), Short-tailed Shearwater (Puffinus tenurostris) and Silver Gull (Larus novaehollandiae) breed on the island. Numerous other birds are occasionally seen on the island. In addition, at least two species of skink (Leiolopisma pretiosum and Leiolopisma metallicum) are found on the island (Green 1974).

Introduced species

The following invasive species have colonised the island: common starling (Sturnus vulgaris), common blackbird (Turdus merula), mirror bush (Coprosma repens) and winter grass (Poa annua).

Shy Albatross breeding locations

Shy Albatross nest on the top of the island. Colonies have formed in four areas: in the north-east, east, south-east and western edges of the island. These remnant colonies were formerly interconnected, except for the northern and southern sectors.

Effects of human occupation

The first European sighting of the Shy Albatross colony on Albatross Island was by George Bass in 1798. Historically, about 11,000 breeding pairs are thought to have nested on the island annually (Alderman et al. 2011). By 1909, however, plume and egg hunters had decimated the colony to only 250-300 nests (Johnstone et al. 1975).

The Mewstone: 43°44'S, 146°22'E

Species

The following albatross species breeds on the Mewstone:

• Shy Albatross.

Protection status

• incorporated within the Southwest National Park

• Southwest National Park designated a Biosphere Reserve in 1978

• incorporated within the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area in 1989.

Geography

The Mewstone is located 123 km south-west of Hobart, Tasmania. The location is 450 m long and only 150 m wide, comprising 13 ha. The Mewstone rises precipitously from the sea to a height of 133 m. A ridge consisting of loose boulders and numerous rock crevices runs in a south-east direction. The only flat tracts on the island occur along the summit of the ridge. The steep sides of the ridge are occasionally interspersed with gently sloping ledges.

Flora

Only seven species of plants occur on the island, Senecio leptocarpus, Senecio lautus, Carpobrotus rossii, Poa poiformis, Asplenium obtusatum, Chenopodium glaucum, and Salicornia quineflora. These small plants grow opportunistically in crevices or cavities where soil has accumulated (Brothers 1979a).

Fauna

Shy Albatross and Fairy Prion nest on the island. Other birds recorded on the island include Common Diving-petrel (Pelecanoides urinatix), Black-faced Cormorant (Phalacrocorax fuscescens) and Silver Gull. The Australian Fur Seal (Arctocephalus pusillus) occurs in moderate numbers, and a skink, Leiolopisma pretiosum, is abundant (Brothers 1979a).

Introduced species

None known.

Shy Albatross breeding locations

Loose nesting colonies occur along the summit and on the rock ledges on both sides of the island. Some nests are located only 15 m above sea level, but most are at higher levels. Two-thirds of the nests are built on the western side of the island (Brothers 1979a).

Effects of human occupation

The Mewstone has never been inhabited. An unknown number of eggs may have been collected early in the 20th century. However, the island's remote location ensures that direct human interference is minimal (Brothers 1979a).

Pedra Branca: 43°52'S, 146°58'E

Species

The following albatross species breeds on Pedra Branca:

• Shy Albatross.

Protection status

• incorporated within the Southwest National Park

• Southwest National Park designated a Biosphere Reserve in 1978

• incorporated within the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area in 1989

Geography

Pedra Branca lies 111 km south-west of Hobart Tasmania. The island is 270 m long, 10 m wide and comprises 2.5 ha. Pedra Branca is essentially a rock mass emerging from the surrounding sea. The east and west slopes rise steeply to meet at a central ridge less than 60 m in height, running in a north-south direction.

Flora

Salicornia blackiana is the only plant species on the island. This species occurs sparsely and is confined to cracks among the rocks (Brothers 1979b).

Fauna

Shy Albatross, Australasian gannet (Morus serrator), Black-faced Cormorant, Fairy Prion and Silver Gull all breed on Pedra Branca. Australian Fur Seal inhabit the island, as does the endemic Pedra Branca Skink (Pseudemoia palfreymani) (Brothers 1979b).

Introduced species

None known.

Shy Albatross breeding locations

The main Shy Albatross colony is located on the south-east section of the island above 25 m where the sheer slope begins to level out making conditions suitable for nesting. Numbers gradually decrease northwards from the main colony (Brothers 1979b).

Effects of human occupation

The island has never been inhabited. It is not known for certain whether humans have exploited Shy Albatross on Pedra Branca in the past. Due to the island's remote location and the extreme difficulty of access, human interference is unlikely (Brothers 1979b).

Heard Island and McDonald Islands: 53°06'S, 73°32'E and 53°02'S, 73°36'E, respectively

Species

The following albatross and petrel species covered by this recovery plan breed on Heard Island and McDonald Islands:

• Black-browed Albatross

• Light-mantled Albatross

• Southern Giant Petrel.

Protection status

• Antarctic Marine Living Resources Conservation Act 1981

• listed on the Register of National Estate in 1983

• Environment Protection and Management Ordinance 1987

• Heard Island and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve Management Plan 2014-2024

• designated a World Heritage Area in 1997

Geography

The external Territory consists of a remote group of islands lying close together in the Indian Ocean sector of the Southern Ocean.

Heard Island and McDonald Islands are an external Territory located in the Southern Ocean, 4100 km south-west of Perth, Western Australia, and south of the Antarctic Polar Front. Heard Island and McDonald Islands are an external Territory located in the Southern Ocean, 4100 km south-west of Western Australia, and south of the Antarctic Polar Front. Heard Island is 20 km wide, 43 km long and comprises 36,800 ha. It is dominated by Big Ben, an active volcano which rises to 2745 m at Mawson Peak (Australia's highest point outside the AAT). To the north-west is Anzac Peak (715 m), a subsidiary volcanic cone. Glaciers cover approximately 80 percent of the island. The remaining ice-free areas are mostly narrow coastal flats at the north-western and eastern ends of the island and along some northern beaches. The McDonald Islands lie 44 km to the west of Heard Island and, comprise some 360 ha. McDonald Island has doubled in area since 1980 following significant volcanic activity.

Flora

The vegetation of the island group is typically sub-Antarctic comprised predominantly of bryophytes, lichens, mosses, liverworts and tussock grasses. Eleven species of vascular plants are known to occur on Heard Island and five on the McDonald Islands. Six major higher plant communities dominate the islands: tussock grassland, meadow, herbfield, pool complex, cushion carpet and fellfield. The islands are void of woody plants (Commonwealth of Australia 2014).

Fauna

Black-browed Albatross, Light-mantled Albatross and Southern Giant Petrel breed on Heard Island and McDonald Islands (Commonwealth of Australia 2014). Fifteen other avian species breed on the islands. Heard Island Sheathbill (Chionis minor nasicornis) is a strongly defined subspecies endemic to the islands. Four species of burrow-nesting seabirds breed in tens of thousands on Heard Island: Antarctic Prion (Pachyptila desolata), Fulmar Prion (Pachyptila crassirostris), South Georgia Diving-petrel (Pelecanoides georgicus) and Common Diving-petrel (Pelecanoides urinatrix).

Other seabirds breeding in large numbers on Heard Island and McDonald Islands include: Cape Petrel (Daption capense), Wilson's Storm-petrel (Oceanites oceanicus), Subantarctic Skua (Catharacta antarctica lonnbergi) and Kelp Gull (Larus dominicanus). Vast colonies of Macaroni penguins (Eudyptes chrysolophus), over one million breeding pairs, occur on both Heard Island and McDonald Island. There are also large numbers of Southern Rockhopper, Gentoo, and King Penguin. Three seal species breed on the islands: Southern Elephant Seal, Antarctic Fur Seal (Arctocephalus gazella) and Subantarctic Fur Seal (Arctocephalus tropicalis). Some 127 species of terrestrial invertebrates (many of which are endemic) have been found to occur on the islands (Commonwealth of Australia 2014).

Introduced species

The introduced winter grass Poa annua is present on Heard Island, as well as several non-native invertebrate species. It is thought that this grass species was introduced by natural processes, probably by skuas from the Kerguelen Islands where it is widespread, because the grass was initially recorded in 1987 in two recently deglaciated areas where human visitation had not occurred (Commonwealth of Australia 2014).

Albatross and petrel breeding locations

The ice-free areas of Heard Island are mostly confined to the narrow coastal flats at the north, north-western and eastern ends of the island. These are the main breeding areas for Black-browed Albatross, Light-mantled Albatross, and Southern Giant Petrel. There have been occasional sightings of Wandering Albatross on Heard Island at Cape Gazert (Johnstone 1982).

Effects of human occupation

Heard Island was the focus of a major sealing industry from 1855 to 1929. It is likely that the albatross and giant petrel populations were exploited for food throughout this period (Downes 2002). In 1947, jurisdiction over Heard Island and the McDonald Islands was transferred from the United Kingdom to Australia. Australia used Heard Island as a meteorological base until 1954. Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions occurred in the summers of 1985-1989, with an over-wintering expedition in 1992. Other visits to the island have been of a short duration, and include carefully administered tourism visits. All visits to Heard Island require prior permission from the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (the administering authority), and visitors are not permitted to disturb seabirds or other animals. The McDonald Islands have been visited twice, in 1971 and 1980. Visits to McDonald Islands are now not permitted, as the location is subject to intermittent volcanic activity (Stephenson et al. 2005, Commonwealth of Australia 2014).

Global warming is having a dramatic impact on the island group including changes in weather patterns and glacial retreat, with vegetation and lagoons now existing where once there were sea-front, glacier snouts (Thost & Allison 2005, Thost & Truffer 2008).

Australian Antarctic Territory: Frazier Islands 66°13'S, 110°10'E; Giganteus Island 67°34'S, 62°29'E; Hawker Island 68°39'S, 77°51'E

Species

The following petrel species covered by this recovery plan breeds in the AAT:

• Southern Giant Petrel.

Protection status

• Antarctic Treaty done in 1961

• Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Fauna and Flora done in 1964, no longer in effect

• Antarctic Specially Protected Area No. 102, Rookery Islands, Home Bay, Mac.Robertson Land designated in 1966

• Antarctic Marine Living Resources Conservation Act 1981

• Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty done in 1991

• Antarctic Specially Protected Area No 160, Frazier Islands, Windmill Islands, Wilkes Land,

• East Antarctica designated in 2003

• Antarctic Specially Protected Area No. 167, Hawker Island, Princess Elizabeth Land designated in 2006

Geography

The AAT covers about 5.9 million km² (42% of Antarctica). Less than 0.2% of the continent is permanently ice-free. It is the driest, coldest and windiest continent on earth. It is also the highest continent on earth, with an average elevation of 2300 m.

Flora

Over 500 species of algae have been found in continental Antarctica, along with 125 lichen species and 30 mosses (Soper 2004).

Fauna

In the Antarctic region Crabeater Seal (Lobodon carcinophagus) and Southern Elephant Seal breed along the Antarctic coastline and on offshore islands. Antarctic Fur, Weddell (Leptonychotes wedellii), Ross (Ommatophoca rossii) and Leopard (Hydrurga leptonyx) seals also breed in the region. Ten seabird species breed within the Antarctic region: Southern Giant Petrel, Southern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialoides), South Polar Skua (Catharacta maccormicki), Antarctic Prion (Pachyptila desolata), Adélie Penguin (Pygoscelis adeliae), Emperor Penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri), Antarctic Petrel (Thalassoica antarctica), Cape Petrel, Snow Petrel (Pagodroma nivea) and Wilson’s Storm-petrel (Soper 2004).

Introduced species

None known.

Southern Giant Petrel breeding locations

Each of the Southern Giant Petrel breeding sites are within designated Antarctic Specially Protected Areas (ATCM 2013, 2015, 2016). Southern Giant Petrel breeding sites within the AAT comprise Giganteus Island 16 km west from Mawson station, Mac.Robertson Land (16 ha), Hawker Island 7 km south-west of Davis station, Princess Elizabeth Land (190 ha), and the Frazier Islands 16 km north-west of Casey station, Wilkes Land (60 ha) (ATCM 2013, 2015, 2016). Colonies are established on open gravel areas and rocky outcrops (Woehler et al. 1990, Woehler 1993).

Effects of human occupation

During the austral summer 1820/21, two sealing masters working from the South Shetland Islands (discovered only two years prior) independently landed on the Antarctic Peninsula. By 1892, over 1100 sealing ships had visited Antarctic regions (Headland 1993). Australia's record of involvement with Antarctic exploration dates back to 1886 when the Australian Antarctic Committee was founded. The first research expedition to winter on the Antarctic continent occurred 12 years later. Australia has three permanent scientific research stations within the AAT: Mawson station (near Giganteus Island), Davis station (near Hawker Island) and Casey station (near the Frazier Islands).

The habitat loss and disturbance to nesting sites associated with construction and operations of research stations have directly affected at least two species: Snow Petrel and Wilson's Storm-petrel. There are also data suggesting regular visits to colonies of Adélie Penguin and Southern Giant Petrel may disturb breeding birds, causing colonies to decrease (Woehler 1993), although this interpretation for some of these data for Southern Giant Petrel is contested (Wienecke et al. 2009).

Human access to each of the Southern Giant Petrel breeding sites is strictly prescribed during the austral summer breeding season under the respective management plans for each of the Antarctic Specially Protected Areas (ATCM 2013, 2015, 2016).

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Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (National Recovery Plan for albatrosses and petrels) Instrument 2022 (Cth)

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