Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 Section 269A Instrument Jointly Making a Recovery Plan (Marine Turtles in Australia) (25/05/2017) (Cth)
Commonwealth of Australia
Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999
Section 269A
Instrument Jointly Making a Recovery Plan
I, Josh Frydenberg, Minister for the Environment and Energy under section 269A(3) of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, hereby jointly make a recovery plan with the New South Wales Minister for the Environment, Minister for Local Government and Minister for Heritage, the Hon. Gabrielle Upton and the Queensland Minister for Environment and Heritage Protection and Minister for National Parks and the Great Barrier Reef, the Hon. Steven Miles, for the listed threatened species specified below, entitled “Recovery Plan for Marine Turtles in Australia, Commonwealth of Australia 2017”.
Listed Threatened Species
Caretta caretta
Lepidochelys olivacea
Dermochelys coriacea
Chelonia mydas
Natator depressus
Eretmochelys imbricata
For the listed threatened species above, this instrument makes the Recovery Plan for Marine Turtles in Australia, Commonwealth of Australia 2017, which replaces the ‘Recovery Plan for Marine Turtles in Australia’ (2003), [Ref: F2007B001080], which was previously made by the Minister for the Environment and Heritage pursuant to 269A of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.
Dated this 5th day of May 2017
Steven Miles
Minister for Environment and Heritage Protection, Minister for National Parks and the Great Barrier Reef (Queensland)
Dated this 11th day of May 2017
Gabrielle Upton
Minister for the Environment, Minister for Local Government and Minister for Heritage (New South Wales)
Dated this 25 day of May 2017
Josh Frydenberg
Minister for the Environment and Energy (Commonwealth)
This instrument will come into force on the day after it is registered on the Federal Register of Legislation.
2017-2027
Acknowledgments
The Department of the Environment and Energy (the Department) would like to acknowledge those who contributed to the development of this Recovery Plan.
This Recovery Plan is based on the draft written by Michelle Boyle, Nancy FitzSimmons and Jason van de Merwe of Blue Planet Marine.
Maps were produced by the Department’s Environmental Resources and Information Branch.
The Department acknowledges the traditional owners of country throughout Australia and their continuing connection to land, sea and community. We pay our respects to them and their cultures and to their elders both past and present.
© Copyright Commonwealth of Australia, 2017.
The Recovery Plan for Marine Turtles in Australia is licensed by the Commonwealth of Australia for use under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International licence with the exception of the Coat of Arms of the Commonwealth of Australia, the logo of the agency responsible for publishing the report, content supplied by third parties, and any images depicting people. For licence conditions see:
This report should be attributed as ‘Recovery Plan for Marine Turtles in Australia, Commonwealth of Australia 2017’.
The Commonwealth of Australia has made all reasonable efforts to identify content supplied by third parties using the following format ‘© Copyright, [name of third party] ’.
Image credit
Front cover: Green turtle, Heron Island, Great Barrier Reef. © Copyright David Harasti.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Executive Summary
Introduction
Recovery Objective
Interim Recovery Objectives
Biology
Threats
Actions
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Review of the Recovery Plan for Marine Turtles in Australia - July 2003
1.2 Objectives, targets and performance indicators of the plan
Long-term recovery objective
Interim recovery objectives (2017-2027)
Targets for interim recovery objectives
Performance of the plan
2 LEGAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 International conventions and agreements
2.2 National legislation and conservation status of marine turtle species
3 BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY
3.1 General biology and ecology of marine turtles
Generalised life cycle
Generalised diet
3.2 Australian stocks
3.3 Protected marine turtle habitats
Habitat critical to the survival of a species
Biologically important areas for marine turtles in Australia
Tools for assessing important marine turtle habitats
4 THREATS
4.1 Description of threats
4A Climate change and variability
4B Marine debris
4C Chemical and terrestrial discharge
4D International take
4E Terrestrial predation
4F Fisheries bycatch
4G Light pollution
4H Habitat modification
4I Indigenous take
4J Vessel disturbance
4K Noise interference
4L Recreational activities
4M Diseases and pathogens
4.2 Cumulative impact of threats
4.3 Existing management
4.4 Threat prioritisation
5 RECOVERING MARINE TURTLES
5.1 Recovering a stock
5.2 Summary of actions to be implemented
Indicative cost of implementing actions
5.3 Assessing and addressing key threats
Enabling and measuring recovery
5.4 Individual stocks
Stock trends
Measure of success
Specific actions to recover each stock
5.5 Stocks at highest risk
6 IMPLEMENTATION OF THE RECOVERY PLAN
6.1 Responsible agencies and partners
Consultation process
6.2 Duration and cost of the recovery process
6.3 Biodiversity benefits
6.4 Social and economic considerations
6.5 Offsetting
6.6 Reporting process
Monitoring the stocks
Appendix A – Key stakeholders
Appendix B – Individual stock risk matrices
REFERENCES
List of Tables
Table 1. Summary of overarching action areas
Table 2. Performance measures for the Recovery Plan for Marine Turtles in Australia.
Table 3. Global conservation status of marine turtles under international instruments
Table 4. Conservation status of marine turtles under Australian Commonwealth, state and territory legislation
Table 5. Marine turtle dietary preferences by species
Table 6. Nesting and internesting areas identified as habitat critical to the survival of marine turtles listed for each stock.
Table 7. Risk assessment matrix framework
Table 8. Summary of the threat risk assessment process undertaken for each genetic stock
List of Figures
Figure 1: Adult green turtle tracks, Raine Island, Queensland.
Figure 2. The generalised life cycle of marine turtles
Figure 3. Green turtle (Chelonia mydas) nesting sites in Australia and surrounding regions.
Figure 4. Loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) nesting sites in Australia and surrounding regions.
Figure 5. Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) nesting sites in Australia and surrounding regions.
Figure 6. Flatback turtle (Natator depressus) nesting sites in Australia and surrounding regions.
Figure 7. Olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) nesting sites in Australia and surrounding regions.
Figure 8. Leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) nesting sites in Australia and surrounding regions
Figure 9. Indicative dispersal for northern Great Barrier Reef and North West Shelf green turtle (Chelonia mydas) stocks
Figure 10. Indicative dispersal for Coral Sea, Gulf of Carpentaria and Ashmore Reef green turtle (Chelonia mydas) stocks
Figure 11. Indicative dispersal for southern Great Barrier Reef, Scott-Browse, Cocos Keeling and Cobourg green turtle (Chelonia mydas) stocks
Figure 12. Indicative dispersal for the south-west Pacific and Western Australia loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) stocks
Figure 13. Indicative dispersal for the north-east Arnhem Land and north Queensland hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) stocks
Figure 14. Indicative dispersal for the Arafura Sea, Cape Domett, eastern Queensland and Pilbara flatback turtle (Natator depressus) stocks
Figure 15. Indicative dispersal for the Northern Territory and north-western Cape York olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) stocks
Executive Summary
Introduction
Six of the world’s seven species of marine turtles occur in Australian waters and are protected under the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). These species are the EPBC Act listed threatened ‘endangered’ loggerhead (Caretta caretta), olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), and leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) turtles, and ‘vulnerable’ green (Chelonia mydas), flatback (Natator depressus) and hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) turtles.
Marine turtles are found throughout Australia’s marine environment and are most common across northern Australia. Australia has some of the largest marine turtle nesting rookeries in the Indo-Pacific region and is the only country where flatback turtles nest.
Anecdotal evidence from European explorers indicates that marine turtles were abundant in Australian waters in the early 1800s[44, 82]. From the mid-1800s turtles became subject to commercial harvest by European settlers for general consumption (meat and eggs), canned turtle soup, meat export, and for the tortoiseshell trade. Although commercial harvest ceased in the mid-1900s, it contributed to an observable decline in nesting numbers. Contemporary threats, including habitat degradation, fisheries bycatch, nest predation and marine debris, have also contributed to the decline in marine turtles in recent decades.
Coastal Aboriginal people across northern Australia and Torres Strait Islander communities have cultural, social and spiritual ties to marine turtles and manage land and sea country with marine turtle conservation and ongoing customary use as a high priority.
The first Recovery Plan for Marine Turtles in Australia was adopted in July 2003. The Australian Government reviewed the 2003 plan and recommended that it be remade. This new Recovery Plan for Marine Turtles in Australia (the plan) has been developed in conjunction with state and territory governments, Indigenous communities and other stakeholders.
Recovery Objective
The long-term recovery objective for marine turtles is to minimise anthropogenic threats to allow for the conservation status of marine turtles to improve so that they can be removed from the EPBC Act threatened species list.
Interim Recovery Objectives
Recognising that the long-term recovery objective is unlikely to be achieved during the ten year life of this plan, the following interim objectives and targets have been set for the life of this plan. The effectiveness of this plan will be measured, and progress towards long-term objectives assessed on the basis of how well the following targets for interim recovery objectives are met:
1)Current levels of legal and management protection for marine turtles are maintained or improved both domestically and throughout the migratory range of Australia’s marine turtles.
2)The management of marine turtles is supported.
3)Anthropogenic threats are demonstrably minimised.
4)Trends at index beaches, and population demographics at important foraging grounds are described.
Biology
The life history traits of marine turtles make them vulnerable to a wide range of anthropogenic threats. These traits include late maturation, high natural mortality of hatchlings and small juveniles, strong fidelity to breeding areas, migrating over long distances, and use of both terrestrial and marine environments to complete their lifecycle.
Marine turtles return to the region where they hatched to breed. This trait has resulted in discrete genetic stocks within each species. Each genetic stock represents a unique evolutionary history, which, if lost, cannot be replaced[63, 168]. As such, while the plan identifies the overarching priority actions for the protection of all species (Section 5.3), it also specifically identifies threats, actions and research requirements that are unique to each stock (Section 5.4). In doing so, the plan will also ensure the conservation of genetic diversity. Amongst the six species of marine turtle found in Australia, this plan considers 22 genetic stocks that nest or forage in Australian waters. The identified threats and subsequent management measures also encompass those turtles that forage in Australia and nest elsewhere (see maps in Section 3.2 and individual stock tables, Section 5.4).
Threats
There are a range of anthropogenic threats that may inhibit the recovery of Australian marine turtles (see Section 4). The risk posed by these threats to the 22 marine turtle stocks varies depending on the habitats they occupy, timing of habitat occupancy, life cycle stage affected, abundance and trends in nesting and foraging numbers, and the management and mitigation currently in place. Threats were assessed through a risk assessment process (outlined in Section 4.4) and are as follows: climate change and variability; marine debris; chemical and terrestrial discharge; international take; terrestrial predation; fisheries bycatch; light pollution; habitat modification through infrastructure/coastal development and dredging and trawling; Indigenous take; vessel disturbance; noise interference; recreational activities; and disease and pathogens.
While the plan considers these threats in isolation, for most of the identified marine turtle stocks, it is the cumulative impacts of multiple threats that need to be addressed to secure their recovery.
Actions
Actions were prioritised based on the number of stocks found to have a ‘high’ or ‘very high’ rating for the threat risk assessment. An action area has been developed for each threat found to pose a ‘high’ or ‘very high’ risk to at least one stock (Table 1). Table 1 identifies the priority action areas from highest to lowest for the recovery of marine turtle stocks. For threats where there was insufficient information available to assess the threat, research actions have been identified. The action areas have been devised to deliver tangible benefits to meet the Interim Recovery Objectives (Section 1.2). The plan also provides priority actions for each of the 22 marine turtle stocks (or in the case of leatherback turtles, those nesting in Australia) in the individual stock tables at Section 5.4.
Table 1. Summary of overarching action areas
identified in the Recovery Plan for Marine Turtles in Australia.
ACTION A. Assessing and addressing threats A1 Maintain and improve efficacy of legal and management protection A2 Adaptively manage turtle stocks to reduce risk and build resilience to climate change and variability A3 Reduce the impacts from marine debris A4 Minimise chemical and terrestrial discharge A5 Address international take within and outside Australia’s jurisdiction A6 Reduce impacts from terrestrial predation A7 Reduce international and domestic fisheries bycatch A8 Minimise light pollution A9 Address the impacts of coastal development/infrastructure and dredging and trawling A10 Maintain and improve sustainable Indigenous management of marine turtles B. Enabling and measuring recovery B1 Determine trends at index beaches B2 Understand population demographics at key foraging grounds B3 Address information gaps to better facilitate the recovery of marine turtle stocks Figure 1: Adult green turtle tracks, Raine Island, Queensland.
Photo: © Copyright Geoff Richardson
1 INTRODUCTION
Six of the world’s seven species of marine turtle occur in Australian waters and are listed as threatened, migratory and marine under the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act). These species are the EPBC Act listed threatened ‘endangered’ loggerhead (Caretta caretta), olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) and leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) turtles; and ‘vulnerable’ green (Chelonia mydas), flatback (Natator depressus) and hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) turtles.
Within Australia, marine turtles are predominantly found in the waters of Queensland, Northern Territory and north Western Australia, although there are a few sightings of most species recorded around south-eastern Australia. Leatherback turtles are known to forage and migrate throughout Australia. There are only a few large nesting aggregations of the green, hawksbill and loggerhead turtles left in the world, and Australia has some of the largest aggregations in the Indo-Pacific region. Flatback turtles nest only in Australia and forage over the Australian continental shelf into continental waters off Papua New Guinea and Indonesia.
Marine turtles are reptiles that are highly migratory, utilising widely dispersed habitats throughout their life cycle. Marine turtles require both terrestrial and marine habitats to fulfil different life history stages. They also display late maturation as well as experience high juvenile mortality. All these traits mean that they are slow to recover from population declines and are vulnerable to a wide range of threats.
Historically, marine turtles were described as abundant in Australian waters in the early 1800s. From the mid-1800s European settlers commercially harvested green turtles for general consumption of meat and eggs, for turtle soup and meat export and hawksbill turtles for the tortoise shell trade[44, 82]. Although the commercial harvest ceased in the mid-1900s, it had led to an observable decline in nesting aggregations of these species[44, 82, 240].
More recently, marine turtles have been subject to increased pressures, including from terrestrial predation of nests, marine debris, expanding urbanisation and industrial development along coastal strips, fisheries bycatch, deteriorating water quality, and loss of nesting and foraging habitat.
Marine turtles are not just facing these pressures in Australian waters, but are exposed to them throughout their migratory range such that, for some species, it is the pressures outside Australia that are affecting their long-term viability.
The management of threats facing marine turtles and their habitats is undertaken by Commonwealth, state/territory and local government agencies, as well as through non-government organisations, industry partners and volunteers. Many Indigenous and local community groups are actively involved in the on-going protection and conservation of marine turtles. This is especially true in remote areas of northern Australia, where communities manage a range of threats to marine turtles and their habitats. Indigenous management of marine turtles has developed over many millennia in Australia and there is a strong desire among Indigenous communities for increased responsibility in managing marine resources[173] to ensure continued cultural connections and sustainable customary use into the future. Land and sea ranger programs conduct conservation, management and research activities for marine turtles in many areas across northern Australia.
1.1 Review of the Recovery Plan for Marine Turtles in Australia - July 2003
The EPBC Act provides for recovery plans to be made for the purposes of the protection, conservation and management of listed threatened species. Recovery plans identify the research and management actions necessary to stop the decline, and support the recovery of, listed threatened species so that their chances of long-term survival in nature are maximised.
The Recovery Plan for Marine Turtles in Australia 2003 was made in July 2003. It identified a number of key impacts to marine turtles including fisheries bycatch, marine debris, Indigenous and international take, shark control activities, boat strike, aquaculture and defence activities. The 2003 plan had six specific objectives with 60 associated actions.
The 2003 plan was reviewed by the Department in 2013. The review found that the objectives of the 2003 plan were generally achieved in relation to fishery interactions, communication with stakeholders and international engagement. However, it noted that for all identified threats there were still opportunities to build on existing programs. Monitoring of key nesting and foraging sites had not been adequately achieved during the life of the plan. Similarly, whilst activities around reducing mortality, managing important turtle habitat and reducing the impacts of light had been initiated, the objectives around these threats had not been fully met. The review also noted that there were a number of emerging threats that had not been considered in the 2003 plan including climate change and increasing industrial noise (seismic and pile driving). Nor had the plan considered the cumulative impact of multiple threats. The review recommended that a new recovery plan be made to address residual and emerging threats to marine turtles in Australia.
1.2 Objectives, targets and performance indicators of the plan
Long-term recovery objective
Minimise anthropogenic threats to allow for the conservation status of marine turtles to improve so that they can be removed from the EPBC Act threatened species list.
Interim recovery objectives (2017-2027)
Recognising that the overarching objective is unlikely to be achieved during the life of the plan due to the long lifecycles and late maturation of marine turtles, interim recovery objectives and associated targets have been developed for this plan, and are listed below. The first objective provides the context for the legal protection that underpins this recovery plan. The second objective provides support for conservation initiatives that will facilitate achieving objective three - the reduction in recognised and emerging threats. Objective four requires the collection of data that will support understanding of whether threats are being reduced and recovery is underway.
Targets for interim recovery objectives
Interim Objective 1: Current levels of legal and management protection for marine turtle species are maintained or improved, both domestically and throughout the migratory range of Australia’s marine turtles.
Target 1.1: Domestic and international legislation and other agreements that support the recovery of Australian marine turtles are maintained, and, where possible, strengthened.
Target 1.2: Robust scientific information is available and used to support decision making.
Interim Objective 2: The management of marine turtles is supported.
Target 2.1: The sustainable management of marine turtles by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities and ranger groups to maintain long-term cultural, spiritual and economic associations with marine turtles is supported.
Target 2.2: The capacity of programs throughout northern Australia to conduct effective monitoring, management and research of marine turtles at nesting beaches and feeding grounds is maintained and increased.
Interim Objective 3: Anthropogenic threats are demonstrably minimised.
Target 3.1: Robust and adaptive management regimes that lead to a reduction in anthropogenic threats to marine turtles and their habitats are in place.
Target 3.2: Threat mitigation strategies are supported by high quality information.
Interim Objective 4: Trends in nesting numbers at index beaches and population demographics at important foraging grounds are described.
Target 4.1: Effective monitoring programs are implemented and maintained at index beaches and foraging areas for each of the six species.
Target 4.2: Measures of success identified for each stock are achieved within the life of the plan.
Performance of the plan
The performance of this plan will be considered at the completion of the plan. The performance of the plan will be rated against how successful the plan has been in meeting targets (Table 2), and will give an indication of the degree of progress towards long-term recovery objectives. The progress of the plan will be considered at a five year (mid-term) review of the plan and at the completion of the plan.
Table 2. Performance measures for the Recovery Plan for Marine Turtles in Australia.
Performance rating for the recovery plan
Targets
Progress towards long-term recovery objective
Successful
All targets met
Excellent
Moderately successful
Five of eight targets are met including 1.1, 2.1, 3.1, and 4.1
Sound
Moderately unsuccessful
Four of eight targets are met including 1.1, 2.1 and 3.1
Adequate
Unsuccessful
Fewer than four targets are met or 1.1 and 3.1 not met
Failure
2 LEGAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 International conventions and agreements
Marine turtles are considered to be in decline globally, despite successful conservation efforts in many countries that have improved the status of some populations. Australia is signatory to a range of international conventions and agreements that afford protection to marine turtles including the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, and the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Australia meets its international obligations to these conventions principally through the EPBC Act. The species in this plan are also listed in the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species, which recognises them internationally as species of conservation concern. Table 3 provides the conservation status of each species under CITES, CMS and the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Australia is signatory to a number of other international partnerships, agreements and initiatives. Collectively, these aim to protect marine turtles and their habitat from threats, increase and share knowledge of these animals and their threats, and inform policy and promote public awareness and co-operative management. Some examples of these partnerships, agreements and initiatives include: the Indian Ocean and South East Asian Marine Turtle Memorandum of Understanding, Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme, the Declaration on Strategic Action Programme for the Arafura and Timor Seas Ecosystems Action, Torres Strait Treaty, and the Agreement between the Government of Australia and the Government of the Republic of Indonesia relating to Cooperation in Fisheries, signed 22 April 2992, [1993] ATS 18 (entered into force 29 May 1993).
In 2014, the CMS unanimously adopted the Single Species Action Plan for the Loggerhead Turtle (Caretta caretta) in the South Pacific Ocean. Although not legally binding, this agreement provides a framework for range states to implement management actions to address the decline of loggerhead turtles in the south Pacific.
Table 3. Global conservation status of marine turtles under international instruments
Instrument
Species
Green
Loggerhead
Flatback
Hawksbill
Olive ridley
Leatherback
CITES Appendix#
Appendix I
Appendix I
Appendix I
Appendix I
Appendix I
Appendix I
CMS Appendix^
Appendix I & II
Appendix I & II
Appendix II
Appendix I & II
Appendix I & II
Appendix I & II
IUCN Status§
Endangered
Vulnerable
Data Deficient
Critically Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
# CITES: Appendix I lists species that are threatened with/or in danger of extinction through trade.
^ CMS: Appendix I lists species that are threatened with/or in danger of extinction. Appendix II lists species that have an unfavourable conservation status.
§ The IUCN listing reflects the global status of the species, noting that some species are also listed on a regional management unit basis.
The Australian Government also actively engages in Regional Fishery Management Organisations with, amongst other objectives, the goal of minimising the impacts of international fisheries on non-target threatened and migratory species such as marine turtles.
The Australian Government engages on climate change issues through fora such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
2.2 National legislation and conservation status of marine turtle species
All six species of marine turtle found in Australian waters are listed as threatened, migratory and marine under the EPBC Act. Under Part 13 of the EPBC Act it is an offence to kill, injure, take, trade, keep or move listed species in a Commonwealth area, unless the person taking the action holds a permit under the EPBC Act or the activity is carried out in accordance with a state/territory or Commonwealth fishery plan of management accredited by the Commonwealth Minister responsible for the administration of the EPBC Act. In addition, it is an offence under Part 3 of the EPBC Act to take an action that will have a significant impact on listed species anywhere in Australia unless approved under Part 9. Actions likely to have a significant impact on a marine turtle species may be assessed by the Minister and where impacts are found to be acceptable may be approved subject to a range of conditions.
The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act 1975 (GBRMP Act), which operates in conjunction with the EPBC Act, affords protection to marine turtles in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. There are other Commonwealth and state/territory marine parks and reserves in Australia that also afford protection for marine turtles.
Marine turtles are also protected by state/territory legislation. Table 4 outlines relevant Acts by jurisdiction and provides the conservation status of the marine turtle species under each piece of legislation. Many of these Acts also require environmental assessment for actions likely to impact turtles.
The Native Title Act 1993 identifies activities such as hunting and fishing as potential native title rights and interests. Section 211 of the Native Title Act 1993 generally provides that a law which prohibits or restricts persons from carrying out a particular class of activity, other than in accordance with a licence or permit, does not prohibit or restrict native title holders from carrying out that activity for the purpose of personal, domestic or non-commercial communal needs and in exercise of native title rights and interests. This protects the pre-existing legal rights of native title holders.
Many Acts have specific clauses that identify the right and authority for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people to hunt as part of cultural practice. These include:
· The GBRMP Act which permits the traditional use of marine resources by Traditional Owner groups in accordance with accredited traditional use of marine resource agreements.
· Turtle and dugong hunting in the Torres Strait Protected Zone are managed as traditional subsistence fisheries under the Commonwealth Torres Strait Fisheries Act 1984. The fisheries are limited to the Traditional Inhabitants of the Torres Strait, and animals may only be taken in the course of traditional fishing and used for traditional purposes.
· Section 61 of the Queensland Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Communities (Justice, Land and Other Matters) Act 1984 allows a member of a community of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people resident in a community government or Indigenous Regional Council Area to take marine products or fauna by traditional means for consumption by members of the community.
· The Western Australian Wildlife Conservation Act 1950 provides an exemption otherwise applying to the taking of fauna for persons of Aboriginal descent to take fauna for food for their selves and their family, but not for sale.
· The Northern Territory Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1974 recognises the rights of Aboriginal peoples who have traditionally used an area of land or water to continue to use that area for traditional hunting, food gathering (other than for sale) and for ceremonial and religious purposes.
· State and territory animal cruelty legislation provides for humane treatment of marine turtles.
Table 4. Conservation status of marine turtles under Australian Commonwealth, state and territory legislation
(February 2017).
| Legislation | Green | Loggerhead | Flatback | Hawksbill | Olive ridley | Leatherback |
| Commonwealth | ||||||
| Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 | Vulnerable | Endangered | Vulnerable | Vulnerable | Endangered | Endangered |
| Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act 1975 | Protected | Protected | Protected | Protected | Protected | Protected |
| Queensland | ||||||
| Nature Conservation Act 1992 | Vulnerable | Endangered | Vulnerable | Vulnerable | Endangered | Endangered |
| Northern Territory | ||||||
| Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 2000 | Near threatened | Vulnerable | Data deficient | Vulnerable | Vulnerable | Critically endangered |
| Western Australia | ||||||
| Wildlife Conservation Act 1950 | Vulnerable | Endangered | Vulnerable | Vulnerable | Endangered | Vulnerable |
| South Australia | ||||||
| National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 | Vulnerable | Endangered | Not listed | Not listed | Not listed | Vulnerable |
| Tasmania | ||||||
| Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 | Vulnerable | Endangered | Not listed | Vulnerable | Not listed | Vulnerable |
| Victoria | ||||||
| Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 | Not listed | Not listed | Not listed | Not listed | Not listed | Threatened |
| New South Wales | ||||||
| Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 | Vulnerable | Endangered | Not listed | Not listed | Not listed | Endangered |
3 BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY
3.1 General biology and ecology of marine turtles
Marine turtles have a complex lifecycle that spans a large geographic range over multiple habitats (Figure 2) and many decades. They are highly migratory during some life phases, but during others show high site fidelity to small geographic areas. The following provides a generalised description of life history characteristics and requirements for marine turtles. For species-specific information please see individual stock tables at Section 5.4.
Generalised life cycle
Adults
Although marine turtles spend the majority of their lives in the ocean, adult female marine turtles come ashore to lay eggs in the sand above the high tide. Females lay on average two to six clutches per season. The period between each successive clutch is known as the internesting period. During internesting turtles remain close to the nesting beach or rookery. Nesting leatherback turtles may not exhibit the same behaviours and have been observed nesting at locations up to 460 km apart within a season[108, 211]. The number of females nesting can fluctuate widely between years. In the case of green turtles this variation has been attributed to environmental conditions and food availability[143].
Eggs
For successful incubation, marine turtle eggs must be buried in ventilated, high humidity, sandy sites that are not subjected to flooding or erosion, and have a temperature range that persists within 25‑35⁰C for the duration of incubation[1, 109]. Marine turtles have temperature dependent sex determination. This means that the temperature during incubation determines the sex of hatchlings, with higher temperatures producing predominantly females[166]. There are also upper and lower temperature thresholds for successful incubation. The time frame for incubation differs across species, but is typically about two months. Adult turtles provide no parental care of eggs or young.
Figure 2. The generalised life cycle of marine turtles
(adapted from Lanyon et al. (1989)[130]).
Hatchlings
Hatchlings emerge from the nest and orient towards the sea using the low elevation light horizon[258]. After entering the water, hatchlings use a combination of cues (wave direction, current, and magnetic fields) to orient themselves and travel into deeper offshore waters[150-152]. Crossing and swimming away from the beach is thought to imprint the hatchlings with the cues that allow individuals to return to their natal region for breeding as adults[153]. Hatchlings do not feed for the first few days of life relying on the remains of internalised yolk resources[257].
Pelagic juvenile
The life stage after a hatchling leaves its natal beach and swims offshore, until it returns to coastal waters some years later as a small juvenile, is referred to as the post-hatchling or pelagic juvenile stage. In general, hatchlings disperse into oceanic currents and gyres where they will stay in these pelagic environments until large enough to settle in coastal feeding habitats[21, 27, 257]. There is limited information on the distribution and biology of pelagic juvenile turtles for most species, with the exception of south-west Pacific loggerhead turtles. Loggerhead turtle pelagic juveniles in the south-west Pacific migrate from eastern Australian rookeries to South America and back[21]. Migrations are most likely made in conjunction with the predominant surface currents where young turtles can use the natural floating debris and biota that congregate along the current fronts to provide protection and food[257]. There is high natural mortality during this pelagic life stage. One exception to oceanic migrations by post-hatchlings is found in the flatback turtle, whose hatchlings are thought to spend this life phase within the continental shelf waters of Australia[136].
While in pelagic habitats, all species are primarily carnivorous, feeding on a range of macro-zooplankton[133]. The feeding behaviour of pelagic turtles appears to be primarily opportunistic and a variety of anthropogenic debris has been found in the stomachs of loggerhead and green post-hatchling turtles[22]. The foraging ecology of post-hatchling flatback turtles is currently unknown. Limited observations suggest they also feed on small animals living in the water column[148].
Juvenile, sub-adult and adult
After leaving the oceanic habitat, juvenile turtles (i.e. not sexually mature) generally ‘recruit’ or take up residency in continental shelf waters where they inhabit sub-tidal and intertidal coral and rocky reefs and seagrass meadows, as well as deeper soft-bottomed habitats. In general, they do not form social groups, but feed as individuals. They tend to live year round in coastal waters, often displaying small home ranges. The exception to this is the leatherback turtle that spends most of its life in the open ocean travelling vast distances whilst foraging[136]. Additionally, an unknown proportion of green and loggerhead turtles do not recruit to an inshore feeding ground and remain in the open ocean as an adults[92]. There is a knowledge gap in this regard for hawksbill, flatback and olive ridley turtles.
Within Australian waters, most juvenile and sub-adult turtles (turtles approaching sexual maturity) show strong fidelity to chosen feeding grounds and do not move large distances[207]. Turtles living in feeding grounds within Australia may migrate to breed outside of Australian waters, and similarly, turtles nesting in Australia may live in foraging areas outside of Australian jurisdiction. For example, flatback turtles use foraging areas off Papua New Guinea and Indonesia[209, 213] and hawksbill turtles live in the Great Barrier Reef and nest on islands in the south Pacific[13].
In general, marine turtle growth is slow and varies among species, habitats, sex and maturity. Marine turtles require 20‑50 years to reach sexual maturity[7] and females will only reproduce when they are able to obtain and store sufficient fat to make the breeding migration and produce eggs. The time between female reproductive activity may vary from 1‑8 years depending on species and food availability[167]. Adult turtles show strong fidelity to both feeding and breeding grounds, migrating long distances (can be up to thousands of kilometres) to return to the region where they hatched[136]. Fidelity to natal breeding grounds means that turtles that nest within a region are genetically more similar to one another than turtles that nest further away[169].
Effective management requires a complete understanding of life history demographics and habitat requirements for each species to determine most responsive life history stages for management[30, 43]. There are currently knowledge gaps around foraging for flatback, olive ridley and hawksbill turtles, and migratory corridors for all species.
Generalised diet
After juvenile turtles take up residency in an inshore foraging habitat they tend to feed on plants or animals on the sea floor, resulting in a more species-specific diet. The typical diets of each marine turtle species residing in Australian coastal feeding grounds are outlined in Table 5. Exceptions to this generalised feeding behaviour also occur. For example, green turtles living in shallow habitat are thought to be primarily herbivorous, but some maintain a considerable carnivorous component to their diet[5, 26].
Table 5. Marine turtle dietary preferences by species
(For more detail see Limpus (2009)[136] and Bjorndal (1997)[18]).
Species
Generalised diet
Green turtle Primarily herbivorous, foraging on algae, seagrass and mangroves. In their pelagic juvenile stage, they feed on algae, pelagic crustaceans and molluscs[22] Loggerhead turtle Carnivorous, feeding predominantly on benthic invertebrates in habitats ranging from near shore to 55 m[136]. During their post-hatchling stage, they feed on algae, pelagic crustaceans and molluscs[22] Flatback turtle Primarily carnivorous, feeding on soft-bodied invertebrates. Juveniles eat gastropod molluscs, squid, siphonophores[262]. Limited data indicate that cuttlefish[37], hydroids, soft corals, crinoids, molluscs and jellyfish[262] are also eaten Hawksbill turtle Omnivorous, feeding on algae[12], sponges, soft corals and other soft-bodied invertebrates[249] Olive Ridley turtle Primarily carnivorous, feeding on soft-bodied invertebrates such as sea pens, soft corals, beche-der-mer (sea cucumbers) and jellyfish in depth between 15-200 m[136] Leatherback turtle Oceanic and therefore remain planktivorous throughout their life, feeding on jellyfish and large planktonic ascidians (e.g. sea squirts) in the water column[136]
3.2 Australian stocks
Marine turtles return to the region where they hatched to breed. This trait has resulted in the evolution of discrete genetic stocks within each species that are defined by the presence of regional breeding aggregations. Each genetic stock represents a unique evolutionary history that if lost cannot be replaced[168]. This plan considers the management of turtle genetic stocks with the objective of protecting the biodiversity of each species.
Genetic stocks have been identified through genetic analyses[63]. Stocks are composed of multiple rookeries in a region and are delineated where there is little or no migration of individuals between nesting areas. Turtles from different stocks typically overlap at feeding grounds[169]. Figures 3-7 show the geographic distribution of nesting sites for each stock for five of the species of marine turtles nesting in Australia (green, loggerhead, olive ridley, hawksbill and flatback turtles). Figure 8 shows the known historical nesting locations and dispersal of leatherback turtles and Figures 9-15 describe the known geographic dispersal of the other five species. Dispersal information is based on tag recovery data, satellite tracking information and genetic analysis of mixed stocks foraging grounds.
Green turtles
Green turtles nesting in Australia are distributed across nine genetically distinct stocks including newly identified Cobourg and the Cocos Keeling stocks[63]. The remaining stocks are found at the North West Shelf, Ashmore Reef, Scott Reef-Browse Island, Gulf of Carpentaria, northern Great Barrier Reef and Torres Strait, Coral Sea and southern Great Barrier Reef. In addition, there are green turtles that feed in Australia that are part of stocks that breed in other countries (e.g. Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and New Caledonia). Green turtles are predominantly found in Australian waters off the Northern Territory, Queensland, and Western Australian coastlines with more limited numbers in New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia.
Loggerhead turtles
There are two genetically distinct stocks of loggerhead turtles nesting in Australia, one in Queensland (known as the south-west Pacific stock) and one in Western Australia. Loggerhead turtles forage in all coastal states and the Northern Territory, but are uncommon in South Australia, Victoria and Tasmania. As post-hatchlings they are known to travel as far as South America[21]. Loggerhead turtles foraging in New South Wales originate from the south-west Pacific stock[63].
Hawksbill turtles
This plan describes three hawksbill turtle stocks, one in the northern Great Barrier Reef and Torres Strait (known as the north Queensland stock) and one in Arnhem Land (the north-east Arnhem Land stock), which is differentiated by temporal variation in breeding[63]. A third is found on the north-west shelf of Western Australia (the Western Australia stock)[229]. Nesting hawksbill turtles from the northern Great Barrier Reef migrate to the Northern Territory, the southern coast of West Papua (formerly Irian Jaya) and Papua New Guinea. Hawksbill turtles that forage on the Great Barrier Reef migrate to neighbouring countries including Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, and the Solomon Islands. It is not known from which stock hawksbill turtles foraging in New South Wales originate. The genetic relatedness of hawksbill turtles nesting in the Kimberley to hawksbill turtles nesting elsewhere in Western Australia is currently unknown.
Flatback turtles
There are five stocks of flatback turtles currently described around Australia[63, 187], however genetic studies being undertaken (as a collaboration between the Department of Parks and Wildlife and CSIRO) on flatback turtles nesting on islands off the Kimberley coast indicate that they may comprise an additional genetic stock (FitzSimmons, pers. comm. 2017). The five described stocks are known as the: eastern Queensland, Arafura Sea, Cape Domett, south-west Kimberley and Pilbara stocks. Additional genetic analysis is being undertaken to provide better resolution of geographic boundaries for flatback turtles in Western Australia. Flatback turtles forage across the Australian continental shelf and into the continental waters off Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.
Olive ridley turtles
There are two olive ridley turtle stocks in Australia, one that nests in the Northern Territory (Northern Territory stock) and one that nests on western Cape York near Weipa (north-western Cape York stock)[63]. Low density nesting has also been described on the Kimberley coast, but genetic relatedness is unknown. There is limited tag recovery data for olive ridley turtles, but satellite tracking data indicates that they appear to remain on the Australian continental shelf into waters off Indonesia[232, 247].
Leatherback turtles
There are potentially three leatherback turtle genetic stocks in the Indo-Pacific[63]. Genetic linkages are yet to be determined between areas where leatherback turtles are known to nest/occur, and those found in Australian waters[14]. As there is no genetic basis on which to separate leatherback turtles into stocks in Australia[63], for the purposes of this plan, leatherback turtles are classified on whether they nest in Australia or in neighbouring countries. Small numbers of leatherback turtles nest on the Cobourg Peninsula and there have been unconfirmed accounts of leatherback turtles nesting in Western Australia. Although historically there was sparse nesting in south east Queensland, there have been no records of nesting along the Queensland coast since 1996[136].
Leatherback turtles are more commonly found foraging in Australian waters along the east coast and in Bass Strait. The southern waters of Australia are one of five identified foraging sites (where area restricted behaviour occurs) for Leatherback turtles[8]. These turtles are likely from the western Pacific genetic stock that nests in north west Papua, northern Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu[14]. Aerial surveys have also recorded leatherback turtles foraging in Northern Territory waters[75]. Leatherback turtles foraging off Western Australia may come from nesting areas in the Andaman Sea and there has been one tag recovery of a turtle that nested in Java[136].
International stocks foraging in Australian waters
For all six species it is known that some turtles nesting outside Australia migrate to forage in Australian waters. These turtles are considered in the table ‘All species – International stocks foraging in Australian waters’ at Section 5.4.
Green Turtle Stocks Nesting in Australia
Figure 3. Green turtle (Chelonia mydas) nesting sites in Australia and surrounding regions.
Source: Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage Protection marine turtle tagging database, Chatto and Baker (2008)[36], FitzSimmons and Limpus (2014)[63], Waayers (2014)[231].
Loggerhead Turtle Stocks Nesting in Australia
Figure 4. Loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) nesting sites in Australia and surrounding regions.
Source: Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage Protection marine turtle tagging database, FitzSimmons and Limpus (2014)[63], Whiting and Guinea (2005)[242].
Hawksbill Turtle Stocks Nesting in Australia
Figure 5. Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) nesting sites in Australia and surrounding regions.
Source: Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage Protection marine turtle tagging database, Chatto and Baker (2008)[36], FitzSimmons and Limpus (2014)[63], Guinea (2013)[79], K. Pendoley (unpublished data 2016), Vargas et al. (2016)[229], Waayers (2014)[231], Western Australian Department of Parks and Wildlife – unpublished data (2016).
Flatback Turtle Stocks Nesting in Australia
Figure 6. Flatback turtle (Natator depressus) nesting sites in Australia and surrounding regions.
Source: Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage Protection marine turtle tagging database, Chatto and Baker (2008)[36], FitzSimmons and Limpus (2014)[63], Waayers (2014)[231], Western Australian Department of Parks and Wildlife – unpublished data (2016), Whiting et al. (2008)[238].
Olive Ridley Turtle Stocks Nesting in Australia
Figure 7. Olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) nesting sites in Australia and surrounding regions.
Source: Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage Protection marine turtle tagging database, Chatto and Baker (2008)[36], FitzSimmons and Limpus (2014)[63], Prince et al. (2010)[190], Western Australian Department of Parks and Wildlife – unpublished data (2016).
Leatherback Turtle Nesting and Foraging
Figure 8. Leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) nesting sites in Australia and surrounding regions
, noting nesting has not been observed in Queensland since 1996[136]. Indicative dispersal for leatherback turtles nesting in the Indo-Pacific is based on tag recovery data and satellite telemetry. Green arrows represent turtles nesting outside Australia and foraging within Australian waters. Source: Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage Protection marine turtle tagging database, Benson et al. (2011)[14], Chatto and Baker (2008)[36], FitzSimmons and Limpus(2014)[63], Namboothri et al. (2012)[174].
Northern Great Barrier Reef and North West Shelf Green Turtle Stock Dispersal
Figure 9. Indicative dispersal for northern Great Barrier Reef and North West Shelf green turtle (Chelonia mydas) stocks
based on tag recovery, satellite telemetry and genetic mixed stock analysis. Source: Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage Protection marine turtle tagging database, Dethmers et al. (2010)[50], Jensen (2010)[116], Pendoley (2005)[181], Waayers et al. (2015)[232], Jensen et al. (2016)[117]. International stocks are also known to forage in Australian waters[136].
Ashmore Reef, Coral Sea and Gulf of Carpentaria Green Turtle Stock Dispersal
Figure 10. Indicative dispersal for Coral Sea, Gulf of Carpentaria and Ashmore Reef green turtle (Chelonia mydas) stocks
based on tag recovery, satellite telemetry and genetic mixed stock analysis. Source: Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage Protection marine turtle tagging database, Dethmers et al. (2010)[50], Jensen (2010)[116], Kennett et al. (2008)[126], Limpus et al. (2009)[137], Spring and Pike (1998)[210]. International stocks are also known to forage in Australian waters[136].
Cocos Keeling, Cobourg, Scott-Browse and southern Great Barrier Reef Green Turtle Stock Dispersal
Figure 11. Indicative dispersal for southern Great Barrier Reef, Scott-Browse, Cocos Keeling and Cobourg green turtle (Chelonia mydas) stocks
based on tag recovery, satellite telemetry and genetic mixed stock analysis. Source: Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage Protection marine turtle tagging database, Dethmers et al. (2010)[50], Guinea (2011)[78], Jensen (2010)[116], Northern Territory Department of Land Resource Management and S. Whiting (unpublished data), Pendoley (2005)[181], Whiting et al. (2014)[249], Jensen et al. (2016)[117]. International stocks are also known to forage in Australian waters[136].
Loggerhead Turtle Stock Dispersal
Figure 12. Indicative dispersal for the south-west Pacific and Western Australia loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) stocks
based on tag recovery. Source: Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage Protection marine turtle tagging database, Boyle et al. (2009)[21], Waayers et al. (2015)[232].
Hawksbill Turtle Stock Dispersal
Figure 13. Indicative dispersal for the north-east Arnhem Land and north Queensland hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) stocks
based on tag recovery and satellite telemetry. Green arrows represent turtles nesting outside Australia and foraging within Australian waters. Source: Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage Protection marine turtle tagging database, Bell et al. (2012)[13], Dobbs et al. (1999)[54], Hoenner et al. (2015)[106], Pendoley (2005)[181], Whiting et al. (2006)[245].
Flatback Turtle Stock Dispersal
Figure 14. Indicative dispersal for the Arafura Sea, Cape Domett, eastern Queensland and Pilbara flatback turtle (Natator depressus) stocks
based on tag recovery and satellite telemetry. Source: Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage Protection marine turtle tagging database, Hamann et al (2015)[86], Pendoley (2005), Smith et al. (2014)[208], A.U. Whiting (unpublished data 2016), Waayers et al. (2015)[232], Whittock et al. (2016)[253].
Olive Ridley Turtle Stock Dispersal
Figure 15. Indicative dispersal for the Northern Territory and north-western Cape York olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) stocks
based on tag recovery, genetic mixed stock analysis and satellite telemetry. Green arrows represent turtles nesting outside Australia and foraging within Australian waters. Source data: Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage Protection marine turtle tagging database, Dethmers et al. (2015)[49], Dwyer and Campbell (2016)[57], Hamel et al. (2008)[88], Jensen et al. (2013)[115], McMahon et al. (2007)[163], Whiting et al. (2007)[247].
3.3 Protected marine turtle habitats
Marine turtle habitats are protected through various mechanisms including through state, territory and Commonwealth legislation. For example, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP) re-zoning design incorporated all very high priority nesting and internesting sites for turtle species nesting in the GBRMP, and 20 per cent of each identified foraging area[53]. Similarly, the bioregional planning process that underpinned the development of the Commonwealth Marine Reserves took into account marine turtle habitat use[56]. Further, the majority of significant marine turtle nesting in eastern Queensland south of Cape York is afforded protection within Queensland National Parks or Regional Parks[136]. Marine Parks and Reserves in the Northern Territory and Western Australia similarly include specific protection for marine turtle nesting and foraging.
Indigenous Protected Areas, Indigenous Land Use Agreements and Traditional Use of Marine Resource Agreements often have a marine turtle management component.
In addition to these protections, the EPBC Act requires all recovery plans to identify habitat critical to the survival of the species. To ensure maintenance of genetic diversity, habitat critical to the survival of marine turtles has been identified in this plan for each genetic stock.
Please note that no “Critical Habitat” as defined under Section 207A of the EPBC Act (Register of Critical Habitat) has been identified and listed for marine turtles.
Habitat critical to the survival of a species
In accordance with the EPBC Act Significant Impact Guidelines 1.1 – Matters of National Environmental Significance, an action is deemed to have a significant impact if there is a real chance or possibility that it will adversely affect ‘habitat critical to the survival of a species’. The guidelines define ‘habitat critical to the survival of a species’ as areas necessary:
·for activities such as foraging, breeding or dispersal
·for the long-term maintenance of the species (including the maintenance of species essential to the survival of the species)
·to maintain genetic diversity and long term evolutionary development
·for the reintroduction of populations or recovery of the species.
Habitat critical to the survival of a species for marine turtle stocks has been identified by consensus of a panel of experts in marine turtle biology. Nesting and internesting habitat has been identified for each stock (Table 6) based on the following criteria:
·Nesting habitat critical to the survival of green, loggerhead, flatback and hawksbill turtles includes at least 70 per cent of nesting for the stock (see Section 5.1).
·As olive ridley turtle stocks in Australia are small and likely to have been significantly impacted by egg loss for several decades (see Section 5.4), nesting habitat critical to the survival of olive ridley turtles includes all documented nesting areas in Queensland and Western Australia, and beaches where nesting has been recorded with greater than ten nesting females in the Northern Territory (noting inter-annual fluctuations).
·Nesting habitat critical to the survival of leatherback turtles includes all areas where nesting has occurred in Australia since 1996.
·Nesting habitat critical to survival of marine turtles is of a geographically relevant scale. For example green turtles are known to move between islands of the Capricorn Bunker Group[136] within a nesting season, while leatherback turtles may move up to 400 km within a season[108].
·Where relevant, nesting habitat determined to be critical to the survival of marine turtles includes areas that are: geographically dispersed; major and minor rookeries; mainland and island beaches; and winter or summer nesting.
·To ensure the validity of long-term monitoring programs for assessing trends in nesting turtle abundance, all index beaches are considered habitat critical to survival of marine turtles.
·Internesting habitat critical to the survival of marine turtles is located immediately seaward of designated nesting habitat critical to the survival of marine turtles. The internesting habitat critical buffer for green, loggerhead, hawksbill, olive ridley and leatherback turtles is 20 km[52, 56, 58, 88, 90, 106, 135, 158, 181, 194, 224, 231, 233, 235, 247, 263] and 60 km for flatback turtles[52, 56, 80, 86, 178, 233, 252].
Index Beaches
Index beaches are those that have been identified by marine turtle managers as important for long-term monitoring and are representative of the stock. They provide the information on which to determine a species conservation status. Index beaches require a statistically relevant number of individuals nesting and consideration is given to economies of scale including the presence of multiple species, feasibility for monitoring (physical access to the location and cost), and ability to repeat observations.
In Australia there are a number of long-term monitoring programs at index beaches that provide vital information underpinning management programs. One example is Mon Repos, Queensland, where loggerhead, green and flatback turtle nesting has been continuously monitored for more than 40 years. For some stocks, establishing index beaches would be beneficial, as there is currently insufficient information to determine the viability of the stock. In addition, long-term monitoring data allows the efficacy of management programs to be tested. It should be noted that to determine the status of a species it is not necessary to monitor index beaches for all stocks.
Biologically important areas for marine turtles in Australia
Biologically important areas (BIAs) are areas where protected species display biologically important behaviour, such as breeding, foraging, resting and migration. All of the identified ‘habitat critical to the survival of a species or ecological community’ areas will be included in the BIA database. BIA’s were originally identified for marine turtles through a rigorous and robust process as part of the Commonwealth Bioregional Planning Process and are referenced in Commonwealth Marine Bioregional Plans. They represent areas where a specific behaviour is known to occur. The absence of an identified BIA does not mean that an area is not important habitat, just that it wasn’t known. This is because BIA maps reflect the best available information at the time of publication.
Specifically, BIAs are based on the following:
a)Behaviour (feeding, nesting, internesting, migration) occurs in the area;
b)Certainty of occurrence (only areas of ‘known’ or ‘likely’ occurrence are considered);
c)The level to which species use the BIA;
d)The season(s) during which species use the BIA; and
e)Source(s) of the information upon which the BIA is based.
The BIA maps are a dynamic tool which allow for up-to-date information to be stored and referenced in a geospatial environment, building on information used to inform the recovery plan.
Tools for assessing important marine turtle habitats
This plan identifies nesting and internesting habitat critical to the survival of marine turtles (Table 6). However, this designation only protects one component of the life cycle. It should be noted that each stock typically uses a broad range of feeding grounds, and feeding grounds can often comprise turtles from multiple stocks and species. Further, marine turtles require migratory corridors between foraging and breeding areas, habitat for mating or courtship, and hatchling dispersal. These habitats have not yet been described such that habitat critical to the survival of the stock can be identified. This knowledge gap is to be addressed during the life of the plan (Section 5.3 Action Areas A1 and B2).
In the interim, any proposed action must also consider any up to date information regarding key foraging areas, migratory corridors, courtship areas and habitat required for hatchling dispersal. There are a number of repositories for this information including the Australian Government’s National Conservation Values Atlas ( which provides an interactive geospatial information source for marine species and the species profile and threat database (SPRAT:
Table 6. Nesting and internesting areas identified as habitat critical to the survival of marine turtles listed for each stock.
These sites represent known important habitat at the time of publication. For specific geographic locations and updated information please see the National Conservation Values Atlas (NCVA) -
Genetic stock
Nesting location
Internesting buffer
Time of year
Green turtle Southern GBR Islands of the Capricornia- Bunker Group, Bushy Islet, Wreck Rock to Burnett Head 20 km radius Oct-Apr Coral Sea Sand cays of the Coringa-Herald National Nature Reserve and Lihou Reef National Nature Reserve 20 km radius Oct-Apr Northern GBR Raine Island, Moulter Cay, Bramble Cay, Murray Island, Dauar Island, Sandbanks No. 7 and No. 8 20 km radius Oct-Mar Gulf of Carpentaria Bountiful Islands, Rocky Island, Pisonia Island, Cape Shield to Cape Arnhem, Groote Eylandt Archipelago, Sir Edward Pellew Islands 20 km radius Jun-Jul Cobourg Peninsula Black Point to Smith Point, Croker Island and McCluer Island Group 20 km radius Oct - Apr North West Shelf Adele Island, Maret Island, Cassini Island, Lacepede Islands, Barrow Island, Montebello Islands (all with sandy beaches), Serrurier Island, Dampier Archipelago, Thevenard Island, Northwest Cape, Ningaloo coast 20 km radius Nov-Mar Ashmore Reef Ashmore Reef and Cartier Reef 20 km radius All year (peak: Dec-Jan) Scott-Browse Scott Reef (Sandy Islet) and Browse Island 20 km radius Nov-Mar Cocos Keeling Cocos (Keeling) Islands and within the Pulu Keeling National Park 20 km radius Oct-Apr Loggerhead turtle South-west Pacific Coastal beaches from the Elliot River to Bustard Head, Swain Reefs
Tryon, Capricornia- Bunker Group, Pumistone Passage to Double Island Point20 km radius Oct-Mar Western Australia Dirk Hartog Island, Muiron Islands, Gnaraloo Bay, Ningaloo coast 20 km radius Nov-May Flatback turtle Eastern Queensland Peak Island, Avoid Island, Wild Duck Island, Curtis Island, Mon Repos, Broad Sound Islands National Park 60 km radius Oct-Mar
Arafura Sea Field Island, Crab Island, Bare Sand Island, Tiwi Islands, Quail Island, Hawkesbury Point, Cobourg Peninsula, Wessel Islands, Gove Peninsula, Groote Eylandt Archipelago, Sir Edward Pellew Islands, Wellesley Islands, Deliverance Island, mainland beaches from Jardine River to Edward River, Crocodile Island Group 60 km radius All year (peak: Jun‑Sep)
Cape Domett Cape Domett, Lacrosse Island 60 km radius All year (peak: Jul-Sep)
South-west Kimberley Eighty Mile Beach, Eco Beach, Lacepede Islands 60 km radius Oct-Mar (peak: Dec-Jan)
Pilbara Montebello Islands, Mundabullangana Beach, Barrow Island, Cemetery Beach, Dampier Archipelago (including Delambre Island and Huay Island), coastal islands from Cape Preston to Locker Island 60 km radius Oct-Mar
Unknown genetic stock Kimberley, Western Australia Maret Islands, Montilivet Islands, Cassini Island, Coronation Islands (includes Lamarck Island), Napier-Broome Bay Islands (West Governor Island, Sir Graham Moore Island - near Kalumbaru), Champagny, Darcy and Augustus Islands (Camden Sound) 60 km radius May-July Hawksbill turtle North Queensland Bird Island, Boydong Island, Fife Island, Milman Island, Saunders Island, Aukane Island, Bet Islet (Bara), Bouke (Bak), Dadalai Islet, Kabbikane, Mimi, Saddle Island (Ulu), Sassie Island, Zuizin Island, Adolphis Island, Albany Island, Hawkesbury Island (Warral), Lacey Island, Laoyak Island, Little Adolphis Island (Smol Muri), Woody Wallace Island, Poll Islet (Guiya), Dugong Islet (Atub), Cap Islet (Mukar), Two Brothers Island (Gebar), Mt Adolphus Island (Muri) 20 km radius All year (peak: Nov-May)
North-east Arnhem Land English Company Islands (including Truant Island and Bromby Islands), Groote Eylandt Archipelago, Wessel Islands, New Year Island 20 km radius All year (peak: Jul-Nov) Western Australia Dampier Archipelago (including Rosemary Island and Delambre Island), Montebello Islands (including Ah Chong Island, South East Island and Trimouille Island), Lowendal Islands (including Varanus Island, Beacon Island, and Bridled Island), Sholl Island 20 km radius Oct – Feb
Olive ridley turtle Western Cape York Coastal beaches from Jardine River to Chapman River 20 km radius Mar-Oct
Northern Territory Tiwi Islands, McCluer Island group, Wessel Group, English Company Island, Crocodile Island Group, Cobourg Peninsula 20 km radius All year (peak: Apr-Jun)
All year (peak: Jun-Aug)Unknown genetic stock Kimberley, Western Australia Prior Point, Vulcan Island, Darcy Island, Llangi, Cape Leveque 20 km radius May-July[190] Leatherback turtle Australia Cobourg Peninsula to Cape Arnhem (including Danger Point) and adjacent islands (including Wessel Islands and Elcho Island) 20 km radius Dec-Jan
4 THREATS
Threats impacting on turtles vary by species, stocks and life history stage. The following provides an overview of threats to marine turtles in Australia, noting the current management in place to address the threat.
Threats are listed in order of priority based on the number of stocks found to be at ‘high’ or ‘very high’ risk through the threat prioritisation assessment process (Section 4.4), which takes into account existing mitigation.
4.1 Description of threats
4A Climate change and variability
Climate change is of particular concern to marine turtles because it is likely to have impacts across their entire range and at all life stages. Climate change is expected to cause changes in dispersal patterns, food webs, species range, primary sex ratios, habitat availability, reproductive success and survivorship[69, 83, 96]. Impacts will differ based on the ability of a stock to adapt to changes in suitable nesting beaches and food availability.
Predicted increases in sand temperature may result in changed sex ratios or decreased hatching success[70, 95, 212, 217, 260]. Changes to water temperature may affect ocean circulation and dispersal patterns, timing of breeding, as well as result in coral bleaching and seagrass die off, which may affect turtle foraging[69].
Green and hawksbill turtles in the Arabian Gulf have shown adaptations to high ambient water temperatures[186] and a genetic mechanism has been found in loggerhead turtles that may allow embryos to develop tolerance to higher sand temperatures[216]. Increasing loggerhead and green turtle nesting is being recorded in New South Wales each year (Crocetti, pers. comm. 2016). It is possible that marine turtles may be nesting further south in response to climate change impacts. These findings indicate the possibility that given sufficient time and availability of suitable habitat, those species of marine turtle that nest in summer may be able to behaviourally adapt to changing temperatures[186] by changing the timing of nesting or moving to beaches at higher latitudes. Winter nesting turtles cannot shift to a cooler time of year and may only be able to adapt by shifting their nesting southwards[212]. However, sea level rise and associated risk of nests flooding may complicate hatchling success, as the magnitude of sea level rise is expected to be greater at more southerly latitudes, particularly for Western Australia[25].
Increased frequency of extreme weather events may lead to reduced or altered nesting habitat, and increased egg mortality through inundation or scouring[67]. These issues have been identified as a particularly threatening process for the northern Great Barrier Reef green turtle stock (including Raine Island)[70]. Increased frequency and intensity of heavy rain events, also means an increase in the risk of extreme flooding events[61], which can exacerbate the mobilisation of sediment and chemicals into the marine environment.
Changes to ocean circulation patterns and altered marine food webs will have substantial impacts on turtles during multiple phases of their lifecycle. For example, the El Niño Southern Oscillation Index is strongly correlated with the number of green turtles nesting in the Great Barrier Reef each year, presumably due to food resource availability in the two years prior to nesting[143]. Changes to the length and frequency of El Niño periods may therefore influence marine turtle re-migration intervals, potentially reducing a stock’s ability to recover from other impacts.
Ocean acidification may have an impact on carbonate sediment production, which in turn will affect the volume and characteristics of nesting beaches, particularly in and around coral reefs[45, 68]. Changes in water pH may also affect foraging habitat and food availability for turtles that forage in coral reefs or feed on calcifying organisms[96].
While some impacts have been observed, such as changes in breeding phenology, altered distribution, and evolution of thermal thresholds[159], there still is uncertainty with regard to how marine turtles will respond to climate change impacts.
To address the broad implications of climate change, the Australian Government is investing in climate change and environmental research through avenues such as the National Environmental Science Programme to help decision-makers understand and manage likely climate change impacts across all ecosystems and species. Within Australia, many business, industries, NGOs, individuals and communities are actively undertaking measures to reduce their carbon footprint.
4B Marine debris
Floating non-degradable debris, such as lost or discarded fishing gear (e.g. discarded nets, crab pots, synthetic ropes, floats, hooks, fishing line and wire trace), land-sourced garbage (e.g. plastic bags and bottles) and ship-sourced materials disposed of at sea (e.g. fibreglass, insulation) can pose a threat to marine turtles at all life stages through entanglement and ingestion[9, 28]. Onshore, marine debris can be so extensive that nesting beaches are buried by waste, making it difficult for turtles to nest and creating obstacles for emerging hatchlings[249]. While large numbers of marine turtles are known to ingest plastic[204], the stock level risk from ingestion is, at this stage unknown. The emerging threat from micro-plastics is of particular concern due to exposure to compounds adhered to tiny plastic particles[218].
Marine debris causing entanglement and ingestion was recognised in 2003 as a key threatening process for marine vertebrates under the EPBC Act. This led to the development of the Threat Abatement Plan for the impacts of marine debris on vertebrate marine life (Marine Debris TAP).
Community action is a major factor in abating the immediate threats posed to wildlife by marine debris through clean up programs. However, the management of marine debris waste can pose problems once collected. Where clean-up activities have occurred on remote beaches or on beaches with dangerous access issues (i.e. crocodiles), the clean up groups may not be able to remove debris from the area. Also the huge volume of collected waste can be too heavy to move. In these situations, the waste is often burnt to prevent it from re-entering the marine environment, creating a non-biodegradable by-product that is also difficult to remove. This by-product can create an obstruction hazard for nesting and hatchling turtles[215]. While clean-up activities provide a short-term solution to the problem of marine debris, there is now a shift toward programs that seek to address the source of marine debris. Developments in waste management technology are also required to manage and reduce waste from both sea and land sources, as well as innovative uses for collected marine debris. The risks for marine turtles with regard to entanglement in marine debris seem to be based on the frequency of encountering debris rather than their specific foraging behaviour[255].
Entanglement
Entanglement in marine debris can lead to restricted mobility, starvation, infection, amputation, and drowning. Derelict fishing gear can have an extremely detrimental impact on marine fauna, as it continues to indiscriminately ‘fish’ passively while in the water column (days to decades)[29].
The prevailing currents and conditions in the Arafura and Timor Seas and the Torres Strait mean that the Gulf of Carpentaria is recognised as a marine debris ‘hot spot’[255]. While some nets may be from Australian fisheries, most (greater than 90 per cent) are thought to be of foreign origin[127, 237]. Lost and discarded nets are a specific threat to marine turtles in northern Australia with greater than 80 per cent of animals recorded in nets being turtles[255]. It was estimated that between 4866 and 14,600 turtles were captured in 8690 ghost nets sampled across northern Australia from 2005 to 2012[256]. Ghost nets impact all species, but Wilcox et al. (2014) found that olive ridley turtles contributed the highest proportion of turtles captured (42.5 per cent)[256]. Olive ridley stocks in Australia are small, and so mortality in ghost nets is of particular concern. Hawksbill turtles were the second most commonly encountered species (32.6 per cent)[256]. There is concern that juvenile hawksbill turtles foraging in coral reefs are captured in nets snagged on coral reefs[237]. Given the difficulties associated with removing nets from the marine environment, the primary approach to this threat has been determined to be source reduction.
Ingestion
Marine turtles can ingest non-organic material unintentionally. Ingestion of marine debris can cause internal wounds or suffocation. It can prevent feeding, leading to starvation and can create intestinal blockages that increase buoyancy and stop a turtle from diving[234]. In addition, toxins from ingested plastics may accumulate in marine turtle tissue with possible health implications[218]. Ingestion of marine debris is particularly likely for turtles foraging in coastal waters[204].
4C Chemical and terrestrial discharge
Sediment and a wide variety of pollutants can enter marine turtle habitat through processes including dumping, run-off from urban, agricultural or industrial sources, effluents, atmospheric deposition and leakage. In this plan, solid waste is considered in 4B Marine debris.
Acute chemical and terrestrial discharge
In this plan, acute chemical and terrestrial discharge refers to any release of pollutants and/or sediment into marine turtle habitat, including spills from land sources, vessels, drilling operations, and natural sources.
There is well documented evidence of the detrimental effects from encountering oil either via external contact, ingestion or inhalation, resulting in breathing, sight or gastro-intestinal injuries[154]. Oil present on or near a beach can persist in sticky or toxic forms in the environment (sand and sediments) for many years. Marine turtle nesting behaviour can uncover this resulting in sticky oil adhering to adults, eggs or hatchlings causing both physical (smothering) and physiological (toxic) effects. Oil is highly toxic to turtle eggs, and the toxic components can penetrate the skin and carapace of hatched and older marine turtles affecting respiration, salt gland function and blood chemistry[206].
The oil and gas industry is regulated under the Offshore Petroleum and Greenhouse Gas Storage Act 2006 by the National Offshore Petroleum Safety and Environmental Management Authority in Commonwealth waters beyond three nautical miles off shore and coastal areas where a state or territory has conferred regulatory powers and functions. In addition, the National Plan for Maritime Environmental Emergencies (2015) sets out national arrangements, policies and principles for managing maritime environmental emergencies and is managed by the Australian Maritime Safety Authority.
Acute terrestrial discharge includes large sediment pulses due to extreme flooding events. These events can cause considerable loss of seagrass habitat due to light limitation[188] that in turn can result in decreased turtle health, starvation, increased stranding and decreased breeding condition[16]. These pulse events may also deliver sudden high contaminant loads to the system[141]. While the event itself may be of short duration, the loss of the seagrass meadows may continue to impact on turtle health for several years[191].
Chronic chemical and terrestrial discharge
Anthropogenic contaminants can make their way into the marine environment from a wide range of agricultural, industrial and domestic sources, and can have direct impacts on marine turtles and their habitats. While not always fatal, long-term exposure can compromise health and increase vulnerability to other stressors[60]. Some diseases and pathogens are exacerbated by poor water quality[2].
Runoff of nutrients and sediment from land-based agriculture, urban development and coastal aquaculture can impact water quality, causing changes in light and salinity over coral reefs and seagrass meadows, disease outbreaks, and exposure to biotoxins associated with algal blooms[4, 42]. One of the major contributors to ongoing poor water quality in the Great Barrier Reef has been the sediment and chemical runoff from agricultural land, and while there have been many improvements to the management of agricultural land, the sediment loads entering the system are still double to those occurring before European settlement[73].
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