Coringa-Herald National Nature Reserve and Lihou Reef National Nature Reserve Management Plan (Cth)
Coringa-Herald National Nature Reserve &
Lihou Reef National Nature Reserve
MANAGEMENT PLAN
This is the second management plan prepared
for the Coral Sea National Nature ReservesForeword
The Coringa-Herald and Lihou Reef National Nature Reserves (collectively known as the Coral Sea National Nature Reserves) were proclaimed by the Commonwealth Government on 16 August 1982. Located approximately 440km east of the far north-east coast of Australia, the Reserves protect parts of the Coral Sea Islands Territory that contain near pristine and internationally significant reef ecosystems, cays, breeding seabirds, and important undisturbed habitat for nesting green turtles. Environment Australia is the Commonwealth Government’s managing authority for the Reserves.
The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) requires the Plan to provide for the protection and conservation of the Reserves. The Reserves are to be managed as strict nature reserves - World Conservation Union (IUCN) category Ia. Such reserves are primarily for scientific research to ensure habitats, ecosystems, and native species are preserved in as undisturbed state as possible.
The Reserves are part of the National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas (NRSMPA). The primary goal of the NRSMPA is to establish and manage a comprehensive, adequate and representative system of marine protected areas, to contribute to the long term ecological viability of marine systems, to maintain ecological processes, and to protect Australia’s biological diversity at all levels. Accelerated development of the NRSMPA is a specific action of Australia’s Oceans Policy launched by the Commonwealth Government in December 1998.
Management planning for the Coral Sea National Nature Reserves is designed to conform to the Best Practice in Performance Reporting in Natural Resource Management (ANZECC, 1997) with an emphasis on goals, strategies, performance measures, targets and monitoring. The performance assessment framework will also generally follow that set out in the Strategic Plan of Action for the National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas: A Guide for Action by Australian Governments (ANZECC 1999).
The preparation of this Plan began under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1975 (NPWC Act) and has been completed in accordance with the EPBC Act. All comments that were received during the public comment period have been given due consideration. As required by the EPBC Act, the Plan will cease to have effect seven years after a notice of its operation has been published in the Commonwealth Gazette. The Plan itself may only be altered following the same statutory process and consultative processes used in its preparation.
Conall O’Connell
First Assistant Secretary
Marine and Water Division
Environment Australia
GPO Box 787
Canberra ACT 2601
Acknowledgments
Environment Australia is grateful to those organisations and individuals representing industry, conservation, indigenous, scientific, and government interests that assisted in the drafting of this management plan for the Coringa-Herald and Lihou Reef National Nature Reserves. The contributions of those groups and individuals that provided input into the consultation process formed the basis for the initial drafting of this Plan.
Contents
Foreword
Acknowledgments
Contents
Some Abbreviations for Frequently Used Terms
A Definition of Biodiversity
Summary
1. Introduction
2. Management Framework
2.1 National and International Context
2.2 Legislative Context
2.3 Management of the Coral Sea National Nature Reserves
3. Strategic Objectives
4. Description of the Coral Sea Nature Reserves
4.1 History
4.2 Climate
4.3 Geography and Geomorphology
4.4 Ecological Values
4.4.1 Marine Habitats, Flora and Fauna
4.4.2 Terrestrial Habitats, Flora and Fauna
4.5 Cultural Values
4.6 Social and Economic Values
4.6.1 Management Patrols, Research and Monitoring
4.6.2 Tourism and Recreation
4.6.3 Facilities/Installations
4.6.4 Shipping Activities
4.6.5 Commercial Fishing
4.6.6 Mineral and Petroleum Exploration and Development
5. Pressures on the Conservation Values
5.1 Marine Pollution
5.2 Anchoring and Diving
5.3 Disturbance to Wildlife Behaviour and Habitat
5.4 Harvesting and Collection of Wildlife and Wildlife Products
5.5 Introduction of Exotic Species
6. Management of the Coral Sea National Nature Reserves
6.1 Research
6.2 Tourism and Recreation
6.3 Facilities and Installations
6.4 Shipping Activities
6.5 Commercial Fishing
6.6 Mineral and Petroleum Exploration and Development
6.7 Surveillance and Compliance
7. Reviewing this Plan
8. References
Attachments
Attachment A: Proclamations of the Coral Sea National Nature Reserves
Attachment B: Terrestrial Plant Species Recorded from the Coral Sea National Nature Reserves
Attachment C: Bird Species Recorded from the Coral Sea National Nature Reserves
List of Tables
Table 1 Visitor numbers to the Coral Sea National Nature Reserves
Table 2 Existing and potential pressures of human use on the values of the Coral Sea National Nature Reserves
List of Figures
Figure 1 Location of the Coral Sea National Nature Reserves
Figure 2 Coringa-Herald National Nature Reserve
Figure 3 Lihou Reef National Nature Reserve
Figure 4 Cross-section of a reef
Some Abbreviations for Frequently Used Terms
AFMA Australian Fisheries Management Authority
AIMS Australian Institute of Marine Science
AMSA Australian Maritime Safety Authority
ANZECC Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council
CAMBA Agreement between the Government of Australia and the Government of China for the Protection of Migratory Birds and Birds in Danger of Extinction and their Environment.
Bonn Convention Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals
Coastwatch An inter-agency cooperative program of the Australian Customs Service providing coastal surveillance flights and surface patrol utilising resources of the Australian Customs Service, Royal Australian Navy, and contract aerial surveillance services.
CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
Director Director of National Parks, a statutory position established by the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Commonwealth)
EPBC Act Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Commonwealth)
Regulations Conservation Regulations 2000 made under the EPBC Act
GBRMPA Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority established by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act 1975; a statutory authority within the Environment and Heritage Portfolio
IMO International Maritime Organization
IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (World Conservation Union)
JAMBA Agreement between the Government of Australia and the Government of Japan for the Protection of Migratory Birds and Birds in Danger of Extinction and their Environment.
NNR National Nature Reserve
NPWC Act National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1975 (Commonwealth)
NRSMPA National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas
RAN Royal Australian Navy
RGSQ Royal Geographical Society of Queensland
The Reserves Coringa-Herald and Lihou Reef National Nature Reserves, referred to collectively as the Coral Sea National Nature Reserves
UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
VMS Vessel Monitoring Systems
A Definition of Biodiversity
Under section 528 of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, “biodiversity” means the variability among living organisms from all sources (including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part) and includes: (a) diversity within species and between species; and (b) diversity of ecosystems.
Summary
Introduction
The Coral Sea National Nature Reserves comprise the Coringa-Herald National Nature Reserve (Coringa-Herald NNR) and Lihou Reef National Nature Reserve (Lihou Reef NNR). Located more than 440km off the north-east coast of Australia, the Reserves lie to the east of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in a remote oceanic environment within the Coral Sea Islands Territory.
The Reserves have national and international significance due to their near pristine condition, regionally representative shelf-edge oceanic reef, spectacular and unusual underwater topography, internationally significant populations of breeding seabirds, and undisturbed habitat for nesting green turtles Chelonia mydas.
Management Framework
The Coral Sea National Nature Reserves were declared on 16 August 1982 and the first plans of management prepared under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1975, came into effect in 1989. The Plan contained within this document replaces the first plans of management.
The primary objective of the Coral Sea National Nature Reserves is to maintain ecological processes and systems and to protect the habitats and biodiversity of the Reserves from the pressures associated with human use. As part of this objective the Reserves are assigned by this Plan to IUCN (World Conservation Union) protected area management category Ia - strict nature reserve: a protected area managed primarily for scientific research to ensure habitats, ecosystems, and native species are preserved in as undisturbed state as possible.
The Marine and Water Division, Environment Australia, manages the Reserves on behalf of the Director of National Parks (the Director). A number of other agencies assist in management of the Reserves, including the Australian Customs Service through their Coastwatch program and the Royal Australian Navy (RAN).
Strategic Objectives
The strategic objectives for the Coral Sea National Nature Reserves are to:
- Protect, preserve, and manage the natural and cultural values of the Reserves, including the marine and terrestrial wildlife, and objects and sites of biological, historical, palaeontological, archaeological, geological and geographical interest from human induced damages.
- Protect key breeding and nesting habitat for listed species such as green turtle and seabirds.
- Manage the Reserves as a reference site for scientific research and long-term monitoring.
- Allow for limited public access to the Reserves for education and enjoyment, in a way that does not interfere with the natural and cultural values, or key breeding sites for nesting species within the Reserves.
- Manage the Reserves as part of a comprehensive, adequate, and representative system of marine protected areas to contribute to the long-term ecological viability of marine and terrestrial systems.
Description of the Coringa-Herald NNR and Lihou Reef NNR
The Coral Sea National Nature Reserves are located in the tropical waters of the Coral Sea Islands Territory and they enclose an extensive area of open water, reefs and a number of coral cays and islets. The Coringa-Herald NNR covers approximately 8,860 square kilometres, and includes three pairs of islets and cays that rise from separate platform reef systems. Covering some 8,440 square kilometres, Lihou Reef NNR and its associated sandy coral cays and islets encompass the largest reef structure in the Coral Sea.
The reef habitats support marine benthic flora and fauna that are distinct from those of the Great Barrier Reef. A diverse range of marine algae, sponges, soft and hard corals, crustaceans, starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, and fish have been recorded within the Reserves. The green turtle, Chelonia mydas, breeds in the Reserves and a number of species of dolphins and whales are known to occur in the area.
Five islets in each of the Reserves are vegetated, predominantly by widespread tropical shoreline plants of the Indo-Pacific Region. The Pisonia grandis forest ecosystem, which occurs on two islets within Coringa-Herald NNR, has intrinsic conservation significance and it is important habitat for nesting seabirds.
The Reserves contain extensive and regionally significant seabird colonies, and many of the species recorded from the Reserves are listed under the Japan-Australia and China-Australia Migratory Bird Agreements (JAMBA and CAMBA). The buff-banded rail, Gallirallus philippensis subsp., and the purple swamphen, Porphyra porphyra, are the only species of land bird breeding within the Reserves.
Several well-documented wrecks, and a number of wrecks whose origins have not yet been established, are located on Lihou Reef. One historic shipwreck, the Coringa Packet (1845), is located off Chilcott Islet within Coringa-Herald NNR.
The Coral Sea National Nature Reserves are a valuable reference site for scientific research and monitoring of marine ecosystems, seabirds and turtles. They are also an internationally renowned destination for diving, snorkelling and bird watching.
An automatic weather station and a solar powered navigation beacon have been established within Lihou Reef NNR. No permanent structures have been established in Coringa-Herald NNR.
Pressures on the Coral Sea National Nature Reserves
The main pressures on the values of the Coral Sea National Nature Reserves comprise those associated with human visitation, human influences outside of the Reserves, natural environmental perturbations, and global change. This Plan focuses on pressures that are linked to human activities and can therefore be influenced by management, including:
- marine pollution;
- impacts of anchoring and diving;
- disturbance to wildlife behaviour and wildlife habitat;
- harvesting and collection of wildlife and wildlife products;
- introduction of exotic organisms;
- disturbance or collection of cultural artifacts and relics;
- conduct of research and monitoring; and
- visitor impacts on wilderness character, natural and cultural values.
Management of the Coral Sea National Nature Reserves
The Coral Sea National Nature Reserves will be primarily managed to maintain ecological processes and systems and to protect the habitats and biodiversity of the Reserves from the pressures associated with human use.
A summary of management goals for the Reserves
- Protect important breeding habitat for seabirds and turtles.
- Reduce marine pollution, including debris from shipping and fishing activities in the area.
- Encourage and develop research and monitoring programs that will provide information for management and increase knowledge of the natural and cultural values of the Reserves.
- Allow limited use of the Reserves for tourism and recreation activities that are consistent with the strategic objectives for the Reserves.
- Protect the Reserves from petroleum and mineral exploration and development activities.
- Protect the Reserves from commercial fishing and bio-prospecting activities.
A summary of main management strategies for the Reserves
- Develop cooperative arrangements with research organisations to conduct research and monitoring activities that will increase knowledge, enhance management, and which are consistent with the management objectives for the Reserves.
- Apply permit conditions to ensure tourism and recreation use is maintained at a level and type that is consistent with the management objectives for the Reserves.
- Minimise, through education and regulation, the risk of damage to the values of the Reserves from human use.
- Monitor and collect for disposal any debris found on the islands within the Reserves to target education about pollution and to reduce debris within the Reserves.
- Prohibit extractive commercial activities, such as mineral and petroleum exploration and development, commercial fishing, and bio-prospecting.
- Encourage, through liaison with other relevant agencies, enforcement of legislation and permit conditions associated with human use activities in the Reserves.
- Maintain cooperative arrangements with Coastwatch and the RAN for the conduct of surveillance and enforcement activities.
Reviewing this Plan
This Plan presents elements of a performance assessment framework including the legislative framework, strategic objectives, management goals and management strategies. Detailed actions, performance indicators, targets and monitoring programs will be further developed from these elements.
The Plan will operate for seven years unless revoked or amended sooner. It will be reviewed approximately two years before its expiry. The results of the review will be used in the development of the next management plans for the Coral Sea National Nature Reserves.
1. Introduction
Coringa-Herald National Nature Reserve (Coringa-Herald NNR) and Lihou Reef National Nature Reserves (Lihou Reef NNR) are collectively known as the Coral Sea National Nature Reserves (the ‘Reserves’). They are located within the Coral Sea Islands Territory to the east of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (Figure 1). The Reserves lie in a remote oceanic environment on the Coral Sea Plateau, which is separated from the Great Barrier Reef by an area of deep water known as the Queensland Trough. The Coringa-Herald NNR and Lihou Reef NNR (Figures 2 and 3) cover approximately 8,860 and 8,440 square kilometres respectively and they are separated from each other by approximately 100km of open ocean waters.
The Coral Sea National Nature Reserves were declared under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1975 (NPWC Act) on 16 August 1982 (Attachment A). The Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) replaced the NPWC Act on 16 July 2000. Accordingly, while the first plans of management for the Reserves were prepared under the NPWC Act, this Plan has been prepared under the EPBC Act. Given the close proximity of the Reserves, the similar nature of the threats they face and their management arrangements, the second draft management plans for the Reserves have been combined into one document (the ‘Plan’). This is consistent with Section 367(5) of the EPBC Act that allows for management plans for different reserves to appear in the one document.
The Reserves have national and international significance due to their near pristine condition, regionally representative shelf-edge oceanic reef, spectacular and unusual underwater topography, breeding seabirds, and undisturbed habitat for nesting green turtles, Chelonia mydas. The Reserves encompass extensive reef systems (covering up to 300 hectares) with twenty-four sandy islets and cays that have developed on shallow shelves of the Plateau. As well as protecting the waters and seabed, the Reserves protect the subsoil and reefs to a depth of 1000 metres below the seabed.
Because the Coral Sea Islands Territory is situated in a remote oceanic environment, it is isolated from the effects of coastal influences. The result is that the waters often have a very high visibility of up to 60 metres. The reef systems of the Reserves support a rich range of coral assemblages that do not have a recorded history of disturbance by the crown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster planci, the predatory marine snail Drupella cornis, or other coral predators.
The marine flora and fauna of the Reserves are distinct from those of the Great Barrier Reef. In particular, the sessile benthic community is quite variable and it is not dominated by hard corals. Benthic communities prominent in the Reserves include Halimeda (a calcified algae of warm seas), sponge gardens, and coralline substrate with encrusting coralline and turf algaes - communities that are uncommon in the shallower water of the Great Barrier Reef (ANPWS 1989a, b; Byron et al., in press).
The primary objective of the Coral Sea National Nature Reserves is to maintain ecological processes and systems, and to protect the habitats and biodiversity of the Reserves from the pressures associated with human use. Secondary objectives are to encourage research and monitoring and to allow for appropriate recreational opportunities that are consistent with the primary objective.
The key conservation values of the Reserves are:
- the near pristine marine ecosystems that have been protected from human-induced impacts, including marine pollution, by their isolation from the mainland;
- the regionally representative examples of rich, shelf-edge oceanic reef;
- the internationally significant populations of breeding seabirds, including migratory species listed under international agreements;
- the undisturbed and important habitat for nesting green turtles, Chelonia mydas;
- the Pisonia grandis forest ecosystem, which is relatively uncommon within Australia and has been subject to widespread destruction and disturbance throughout most of its Indo-Pacific distribution;
- the diversity and abundance of marine sponges, which in places form spectacular sponge gardens; and,
- fish and decapod crustacean fauna that is distinct from that of the Great Barrier Reef.
The Management Plan assigns the Reserves to an IUCN (World Conservation Union) category Ia - strict nature reserve: to be managed primarily for scientific research to ensure habitats, ecosystems and native species are preserved in as undisturbed a state as possible. Public access will be limited to the extent that is consistent with the reserve management principles that apply to this reserve management category.
2. Management Framework
2.1 National and International Context
The Reserves are part of the National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas (NRSMPA). The NRSMPA aims to establish and manage a comprehensive, adequate and representative system of marine protected areas, to contribute to the long-term viability of marine systems, to maintain ecological processes and systems, and to protect Australia’s biological diversity at all levels (ANZECC 1998). Other secondary goals of the NRSMPA are to provide for the special needs of threatened species, migratory species, and species vulnerable to disturbance. Marine protected areas within the NRSMPA have been established especially for the conservation of biological diversity and they have a secure status.
The Commonwealth Government’s commitment to the NRSMPA was reaffirmed through Australia’s Oceans Policy (Commonwealth of Australia 1998), which identifies the need to protect marine biodiversity through marine protected areas. The NRSMPA is being implemented cooperatively by Commonwealth, State and Northern Territory Governments, through the Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council, under the Intergovernmental Agreement on the Environment.
This Plan is consistent with Australia’s obligations under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 (UNCLOS), which came into force in November 1994. UNCLOS provides a framework to regulate all aspects of the uses of the sea and the conservation of marine environment.
Establishing the Reserves assists Australia to meet its obligations under the Convention on Biological Diversity 1992. The Convention requires parties to pursue the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of its components. A key feature of the Convention is the establishment of a system of protected areas where special measures need to be taken to conserve biological diversity.
The management goals and strategies outlined in this Plan are consistent with Australia’s obligations toward the conservation of migratory species listed on the Appendices of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn Convention). Parties to this convention have agreed to: protect migratory species; and negotiate and implement agreements for the conservation and management of migratory species with other range states including cooperation and support of research relating to migratory species. In fulfilling its commitment to the Bonn Convention, Australia has negotiated bilateral migratory bird agreements with the Governments of Japan and China (JAMBA and CAMBA respectively). The management of the Reserves will help to protect listed migratory species by providing refuge areas where breeding, foraging, and migration regularly occur.
Australia also has obligations as a member of the International Whaling Commission and is a Party to the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling. Some of these obligations include providing for the proper conservation of whale stocks through the complete protection of certain species and designation of specified areas as whale sanctuaries, and through promoting relevant research. This management plan contributes to Australia’s fulfillment of these obligations by fully protecting all whales in the Reserves.
2.2 Legislative Context
The Coral Sea National Nature Reserves are Commonwealth reserves under the EPBC Act. Administration, management and control of Commonwealth reserves are a function of the Director of National Parks. The Director’s functions and powers in relation to the Coral Sea National Nature Reserves and other Commonwealth marine reserves have been delegated to the First Assistant Secretary of the Marine and Water Division, Environment Australia.
The EPBC Act requires the Director to prepare management plans for Commonwealth reserves. When prepared the plans are given to the Minister for the Environment and Heritage for approval. A management plan is a ‘disallowable instrument’, and when approved must be tabled in each House of the Commonwealth Parliament. Either House of the Parliament may disallow a plan within 15 sitting days. A management plan for a Commonwealth reserve has effect for seven years, subject to being revoked or amended earlier by another management plan for the reserve.
The EPBC Act (s. 368 (3)) specifies matters that must be taken into account in preparing a management plan. So far as relevant to the Coral Sea National Nature Reserves, these matters include:
- the regulation of the use of the Reserves for the purpose for which they were declared (the preservation of the area in its natural condition, and the encouragement and regulation of the appropriate use, appreciation, and enjoyment of the area by the public); and
- the protection of the special features of the Reserves, including objects and sites of biological, historical, geological and geographical interest; and
- the protection, conservation and management of biological diversity and heritage within the Reserves; and
- the protection of the Reserves against damage; and
- Australia’s obligations under agreements between Australia and one or more other countries relevant to the protection and conservation of biological diversity and heritage.
The EPBC Act (s. 354) imposes a range of controls and restrictions on activities in Commonwealth reserves. Certain acts are prohibited except in accordance with a management plan. These acts are:
- kill, injure, take, trade, keep or move a member of a native species; or
- damage heritage; or
- carry on an excavation; or
- erect a building or other structure; or
- carry out works; or
- take an action for commercial purposes.
Mining operations are also prohibited unless the Governor-General has approved them and they are carried out in accordance with a management plan.
As noted earlier in this Plan, the Coral Sea National Nature Reserves were proclaimed under the NPWC Act, which was replaced by the EPBC Act on 16 July 2000. The EPBC Act has also replaced four other Commonwealth Acts. They were the Environment Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act 1974, Endangered Species Protection Act 1992, Whale Protection Act 1980, and World Heritage Properties Conservation Act 1983. These other parts of the EPBC Act will also be relevant to the management of the Coral Sea National Nature Reserves and the taking of actions in and in relation to the Reserves.
In particular, actions that would or are likely to have a significant impact on a specified matter of “national environmental significance” will be subject to the assessment and approval provisions of the EPBC Act. The matters of national environmental significance are:
- World Heritage properties;
- wetlands of international importance (Ramsar wetlands);
- listed threatened species and communities;
- listed migratory species;
- nuclear actions;
- the marine environment; and
- such further actions as are prescribed by the EPBC Regulations under the Act.
The Reserves are “Commonwealth marine areas” for the purposes of the Act. The taking of an action in a Commonwealth marine area (including the airspace above it) that will or is likely to have a significant impact on the environment, or the taking of an action outside a Commonwealth marine area that will or is likely to have a significant impact on the environment in a Commonwealth marine area, will be subject to the assessment and approvals provisions of the EPBC Act. The person proposing to take the action must refer proposed actions that may require approval from the Commonwealth Environment Minister.
The EPBC Act also contains provisions that prohibit and regulate actions in relation to threatened species, migratory species, cetaceans (whales and dolphins), and other (listed) marine species. Civil and criminal penalties may be imposed for breaches of the EPBC Act.
2.3 Management of the Coral Sea National Nature Reserves
Under s367 of the EPBC Act, and in accordance with the Australian IUCN reserve management principles outlined in Schedule 8, Part 2 of the EPBC Regulations, the Reserves are assigned by the Plan to IUCN category Ia - strict nature reserve: protected area managed primarily for scientific research or monitoring. The provisions of a management plan for a Commonwealth reserve must not be inconsistent with the Australian reserve management principles for the IUCN category to which the reserve is assigned by the plan. The reserve management principles under the EPBC Regulations that apply to the management of the Reserves are as follows:
- habitats, ecosystems and native species should be preserved in as undisturbed a state as possible;
- genetic resources should be maintained in a dynamic and evolutionary state;
- established ecological processes should be maintained;
- structural landscape features or rock exposures should be safeguarded;
- examples of the natural environment should be secured for scientific studies, environmental monitoring and education, including baseline areas from which all avoidable access is excluded;
- disturbance should be minimised by careful planning and execution of research and other approved activities; and
- public access should be limited to the extent that is consistent with these principles.
3. Strategic Objectives
The strategic objectives for the Coral Sea National Nature Reserves are designed to comply with the EPBC Act, the Strategic Plan of Action for the National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas: A Guide for Action by Australian Governments (ANZECC 1999), the Guidelines for Protected Areas Management (IUCN 1994) and the Australian IUCN Reserve Management Principles. They form the basis of this Plan and are presented below.
- Manage the Reserves as part of a comprehensive, adequate and representative system of marine protected areas to contribute to the long-term ecological viability of marine and terrestrial systems.
- Protect, preserve and manage the natural and cultural values of the Reserves, including the marine and terrestrial wildlife, and objects and sites of biological, historical, palaeontological, archaeological, geological and geographical interest from human induced damages.
- Protect key breeding and nesting habitat for listed species such as green turtle and seabirds.
- Manage the Reserves as a reference site for scientific research and long-term monitoring.
- Allow for limited public access to the Reserves for education and enjoyment, in a way that is consistent with the above objectives.
4. Description of the Coral Sea Nature Reserves
4.1 History
It is not known when or by whom the Coral Sea islands were first encountered, but their existence was known to navigators in the early 1800s (Burmester 1983). The Coringa Islets were named after the cargo ship Coringa Packet, wrecked there in 1845, and the Herald Cays were named after HMS Herald, which carried out hydrographic surveys in the Coral Sea between 1849 and 1861. Lihou Reef was named after Captain Lihou of HMS Zenobia.
In the 1960s three scientific parties visited many of the islands and reefs within the Coral Sea Islands Territory (McMichael and Yaldwyn 1965). In an assessment of the conservation status of coral islands and reefs, McMichael and Talbot (1969) advocated total protection of a sample of islands in the Coral Sea. After consultations with relevant government departments the Reserves were declared in 1982.
Since 1979, a number of scientific surveys have been conducted on a primarily opportunistic basis in conjunction with the regular Coral Sea National Nature Reserves management patrols (see section 4.6) and monitoring activities. In June 1997, a multi-disciplinary scientific expedition organised by the Royal Geographic Society of Queensland visited the Herald Cays and surrounding reef. The aim of the expedition was to study the natural resources of North-East Herald Cay in order to contribute to the area’s conservation and management.
4.2 Climate
Due to the Reserves’ tropical location and the oceanic influence there is little variation in daily or annual temperatures (ANPWS 1989a, b). The Bureau of Meteorology operates eight automatic weather stations within the Coral Sea Islands Territory, one of which is located on Turtle Islet within Lihou Reef NNR. However, more reliable weather records dating back to 1921 are available from the manned station on nearby Willis Islets, approximately 50km north-west of Magdelaine Cays in Coringa-Herald NNR (ANPWS 1989a, b; Neil and Jell, in press a).
Mean annual rainfall at Willis Islets is 1,094mm, with 68% of rainfall falling from January to April (Bureau of Meteorology website; Neil and Jell, in press a).
Mean daily temperatures during the two hottest months range from a minimum of 25.3°C for December and 25.6°C for January to a maximum of 30.7°C for both months. The mean daily minimum and maximum during August, the coldest month, are 21.9°C and 26.4°C respectively (Bureau of Meteorology website).
Wind energy and direction have a critical influence on sediment transport dynamics, cay location on reefs, and the distribution and growth of flora (Neil and Jell, in press a). South-east winds predominate over the Coral Sea from March to November and the north-west monsoon prevails from December to February (ANPWS 1989a).
4.3 Geography and Geomorphology
Coringa-Herald NNR is located in the central part of the Coral Sea Plateau, approximately 440km east of Cairns. The reserve boundary encloses extensive reefs and six cays ranging from 16 to 37 hectares in size.
The islets and cays of Coringa-Herald NNR rise steeply from three separate platform reef systems, each representing a distinct stage in reef formation. The reefs support three separate islet/cay groups: the Herald Cays, comprising South West and North East Cays; the Coringa Islets, comprising South West and Chilcott Islets; and the Magdelaine Cays, comprising North West Islet and South East Cay. Each of the cays has a fringing coral reef that is fully exposed to the influences of oceanic currents and swells.
Lihou Reef, a south-easterly facing horseshoe-shaped reef with 18 small sand cays along its perimeter, is the largest reef structure in the Coral Sea. It is located approximately 575km east south-east of Cairns and 100km south-east of Coringa-Herald NNR.
4.4 Ecological Values
4.4.1 Marine Habitats, Flora and Fauna
MARINE HABITATS
The marine habitats present in the shallower areas of both Reserves are (see also figure 4):
- front (windward) reef slopes;
- exposed reef crest/reef rim;
- reef flat, back (leeward) reef crest;
- back reef slope, reef shoals;
- and inter-reef channels.
In addition, Lihou Reef NNR has a lagoon habitat formed within the U-shaped structure of the reef system. Detailed information on the habitats and communities of the deeper areas is not available. In general, however, the abundance and variety of the biota progressively decrease below the depth of the thermocline (at approximately 200m depth).
MARINE FLORA
Algae are an important component of the Reserves’ marine flora, frequently covering a greater area than the corals (ANPWS 1989a,b). During the 1997 preliminary survey of marine algae of North East Herald Cay, Millar (in press) recorded a total of 66 species, which is expected to be only a fraction of the total present. Forty-one species of red algae, 23 of green algae and 2 of brown algae were recorded. Halimeda, a calcified algae of warm seas, is a prominent feature of the benthic habitat. The near absence of brown algae is unusual for what appears to be a typical reef environment (Millar, in press).
INVERTEBRATE MARINE FAUNA
Sponges (family Spongiidae) form an important part of the reef fauna and, in marked contrast to the shallow reefal areas of the Great Barrier Reef, they are often more abundant than coral, in places forming large and spectacular sponge gardens. The commonly occurring sponges include; Thorecta n. sp., Polyfibrospongia flabellifera, Phyllospongia n. subsp., Carteriospongia lamellosa, C. n. sp., and C. pennatula. Phyllospongia pennatula, which had not been collected since 1889, was found to be common at Chilcott Islet, within Coringa-Herald NNR, and East Diamond Islets near Lihou Reef NNR (Ayling and Ayling 1984).
The hard corals in the Reserves do not appear to be especially abundant or diverse. They cover a relatively small proportion of reef area compared to the hard corals of the Great Barrier Reef and other sites in the western Pacific, with average maximum estimates ranging from 19.2%
(Ayling and Ayling 1984) to 25.9% (Byron et al., in press). The dominant hard corals are Acropora palifera, A. humilis and Poecilopora spp. (ANPWS 1989a,b). Ayling and Ayling (1984) suggest that hard coral cover may previously have been higher and that some unknown agent (possibly natural) may have caused coral death on the Coral Sea reefs sometime between Done’s 1980/81 survey (Done 1982) and their survey in 1984.
Soft corals tend to be more important in sheltered areas, such as the deeper reef slope areas and deep reef flats (ANPWS 1989a). They provide approximately 3.5% of the total cover at North East Herald Cay (Byron et al., in press) and primarily comprise Sarcophyton sp.
The marine molluscan fauna is moderately rich and represents a subset of a more widely distributed tropical molluscan fauna. The 1997 survey (Loch, in press) of North East Herald Cay yielded 717 species of marine molluscs, and an additional 28 species were recorded from earlier surveys of the area. These species represented some 118 families, comprising: 87 families of gastropod molluscs, 21 of bivalve molluscs, four of cephalopod molluscs, three of scaphopod molluscs and one of amphineurid molluscs (Loch, in press). No species found were endemic to North-east Herald Cay. However, two species recorded during the survey, Rissopsis typica and Cypraea childreni, were quite common despite being rare over much of the rest of their range. Interestingly, sponge feeding mollusc families, such as Triphoridae and Cerithiopsidae, were not abundant despite the presence of extensive sponge gardens (Loch, in press).
The decapod crustacean fauna is relatively rich. One hundred and twenty eight species of marine, semi-terrestrial and terrestrial decapod crustacea were recorded during the 1997 survey of North East Herald Cay (Davie and Short, in press). Nine of these species appear to be undescribed and 17 are new records for Australian waters. The marine crustacea tended to be inconspicuous and relatively low in abundance while the semi-terrestrial and terrestrial species were both conspicuous and abundant. The species recorded were predominantly of wide-ranging Indo-West Pacific distribution, however, many species that are common and widely distributed on the Great Barrier Reef were absent from North East Herald Cay or recorded from only a few individuals (Davie and Short, in press).
Preker (in press) described the hydroid fauna as being remarkably rich compared with that of other reefal areas. The 1997 survey of North East Herald Cay revealed 55 species representing 14 families, and additional species are likely to be present. Eleven of these species were new records for Queensland reefal waters and nine were new records for Australian waters.
Starfish, brittle stars, feather stars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers and other invertebrate groups have been observed within the Reserves, but systematic surveys of their diversity and abundance have yet to be undertaken. Several crown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster planci, have been observed within the Reserves, however they do not currently occur in numbers sufficient to cause disturbance to the indigenous reef fauna.
VETERBRATE MARINE FAUNA
Surveys by Ayling and Ayling (1984) and Byron et al. (in press) suggest that there are fewer species of fish in the Reserves than in the Great Barrier Reef. Furthermore, few of those fish found in the Reserves, if any, are endemic. It is, however, distinct because some species of fish that are common in the Coral Sea Reserves are rare or absent from the Great Barrier Reef, and vice versa (Ayling and Ayling 1984; Allen 1988; Byron et al., in press).
In their preliminary survey of the Reserves, Ayling and Ayling (1984) recorded 322 species of fish. In 1997, Byron et al. (in press) recorded 356 species from 54 families on the reefs of North-East Herald Cay. Of these, 42 species were new records for the Coral Sea, most of which were rare with only one or a few individuals sighted. In both surveys, the six families represented by the most number of species were the Labridae (wrasses), Pomacentridae (damselfishes), Acanthuridae (surgeonfishes), Chaetodontidae (butterfly fishes), Serranidae (cods and coral trout), and Scaridae (parrotfishes) (Ayling and Ayling 1984; Byron et al., in press).
The green turtle, Chelonia mydas, is listed as vulnerable under the EPBC Act and is the only species of marine turtle recorded mating and nesting within the Reserves. Under the draft Recovery Plan for Marine Turtles in Australia (1998), research and monitoring are important components to ensuring the recovery and conservation of Australia’s green turtle populations. Genetic studies have shown that the nesting population within the Reserves is of the same genetic stock as the green turtles in the Great Barrier Reef and Torres Strait. The Reserves contain important nesting sites that are almost totally free from disturbances such as lighting, beach use, pollution, feral animals and boat traffic compared to nesting sites throughout the Great Barrier Reef. These Reserves therefore provide reference areas to determine the impacts of such disturbances on breeding success within this population.
Green turtles are also listed as endangered on the IUCN Red List and protected under the Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Animals (CITES) to which Australia is a Party. The conservation and monitoring of green turtles within the Reserves contributes to Australia’s obligations as a Party to the IUCN and CITES.
Opportunistic monitoring of green turtles in the Reserves was undertaken between 1979 and 1991. A more systematic tagging program in collaboration with Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service was established in 1991 and has continued to the present. The monitoring program has two components:
1. monitoring nesting activity, tagging and measuring green turtles; and
2. determining the hatching success of the stock from the previous nesting survey.
The life history of turtles is such that impacts on populations can only be determined from long-term monitoring (20+ years). With a nesting interval of four to eight years, inter-season tag returns are just becoming apparent, and additional years of monitoring are required to obtain results from the effort expended in previous years (Armstrong 2000 unpub).
Hawksbill turtles, Eretmochelys imbricata, also listed as vulnerable under the EPBC Act, have been sighted within the Reserves, but they have not been observed nesting.
There have been no sightings of sea-snakes within the Reserves.
A number of cetaceans have a range that includes the Coral Sea Islands Territory. A pilot whale, Globicephala macrorhynchus, was washed up on North East Herald Cay in 1989 (M. Hallam, pers. comm.). Other whales and dolphins likely to occur in the area include: humpback whales, Megaptera novaeangliae, sperm whales, Physeter macrocephalus, spinner dolphins, Stenella longirostris, striped dolphins, S. coeruleoalba, spotted dolphins, S. attenuata, common dolphins, Delphinus delphis, bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus, and Risso’s dolphins, Grampus griseus (ANPWS 1989a, b).
4.4.2 Terrestrial Habitats, Flora and Fauna
TERRESTRIAL HABITATS
Most of the islets and cays are composed of sand, rocks and coral rubble, that rise no higher than five metres above sea level. The terrestrial habitats common to both Reserves are beachrock, sandy beach, coral rubble, grassland, and herbfield. Some islets in Coringa-Herald NNR also have shrubland and forest habitats. All cays of the Coringa-Herald NNR except North-West (Magdalaine) Cay are vegetated, while only five of the 18 cays in the Lihou Reef NNR are vegetated - Turtle Islet and Georgina, Nellie, Lorna and Anne Cays (ANPWS 1989a, b).
TERRESTRIAL FLORA
The flowering terrestrial plants recorded for the Reserves are primarily widespread tropical shoreline plants of the Indo-Pacific Region (ANPWS 1989a,b; Telford 1993). The exception is Digitaria ctenantha, a grass native to northern Australia (Batianoff, in press). Twenty-three terrestrial plant species have been recorded from Coringa-Herald NNR and 7 from Lihou Reef NNR (ANPWS 1989a, b; Batianoff, in press). The limited number of species is thought to be influenced by a number of factors, including island isolation (Batianoff, in press), weather patterns, island size, absence or temporary nature of a freshwater lens beneath the cays and possibly a low frequency of ‘washover’ events to deposit seeds high enough on the islands to become viable (Waterhouse, pers. comm.). Attachment B provides a list of terrestrial plant species recorded from the Coral Sea National Nature Reserves.
The vegetated islets in Coringa-Herald NNR are fringed with the shrub Argusia argentea and have a grassy understorey dominated by Lepturus repens, Stenotaphrum micranthum and Sporobolus virginicus (ANPWS 1989a,b). There are no A. argentea shrubs in Lihou Reef NNR.
Pisonia grandis forest occurs on two cays in Coringa-Herald NNR - North East Herald Cay and South East Magdelaine Cay. The P. grandis forest ecosystem is relatively uncommon, both in Australia and globally, despite having an extensive Indo-Pacific distribution. Throughout much of its range, P. grandis forests have been cleared for subsistence agriculture and guano mining. Remaining examples of P. grandis are known from only 44 of about 950 islands within the Great Barrier Reef region and the species is rare on reef islands in the north of this region where it does not generally form monospecific stands. In this context, the P. grandis forests of Coringa-Herald NNR are of intrinsic value as well as playing a significant role as habitat for nesting seabirds (Neil and Jell, in press b). P. grandis does not occur in Lihou Reef NNR.
There are reports of cyclonic activity damaging areas of P. grandis forest within the Reserves during the 1980s and the forest on South West Coringa Islet was extensively damaged by an outbreak of the scale insect Pulvinaria urbicola in 1991 (Batianoff, in press). The 1999 August patrol reported that South West Coringa Islet continued to show signs of degradation, with large areas of once dense forest now reduced to herbland from a heavy infestation of scale insect. Only a small patch of P. grandis forest remains and that appeared to be without any new regrowth (Hallam et al. 1999b).
A number of beach washed seeds from various islets and sand cays in the Reserves collected during the June 1991 patrol were identified. Species include: Barringtonia asiatica, Heritiera littoralis, Calophyllum inophyllum, Terminalia catappa and Entada phaseoloides (Weston et al. 1991). These seeds are commonly spread throughout the tropical seas by tides and currents or trade winds and are considered prime ‘invader’ species, where the seeds wash up on beaches with suitable environmental conditions for germination. Their effects or success in establishing new plant colonies on islets and cays in the reserves has so far been benign.
In their 1997 survey of North East Herald Cay, Neil and Jell (in press b) found that the windward beach was actively eroding, leading to destabilisation of the fringing Argusia shrubland that provided a windbreak for the P. grandis forest. Some forest areas have already been destroyed and a likely outcome is the gradual replacement of forest with grassland, which would have implications for the terrestrial ecology of the cay, particularly the composition of the nesting seabirds, the hatching success and sex ratios of green turtles.
INVERTEBRATE TERRESTRIAL FAUNA
The composition of the terrestrial invertebrate fauna of the Reserves is not well known, although preliminary surveys suggest that it is not particularly rich. Of the four cays surveyed within Coringa-Herald NNR, North East Herald Cay had the greatest invertebrate diversity (ANPWS 1989a; Gunn, undated), with insects the dominant group and probably the dominant terrestrial herbivore (Hinchey and Stokes 1987). Mites, spiders, spring tails, ants, flies and beetles were the most commonly recorded groups (Gunn, undated).
Within Lihou Reef NNR, only Turtle Islet has been surveyed in any detail and the greatest diversity was for spiders, beetles and flies. Of particular scientific interest is a species of Pseudoscorpion belonging to the genus Nannochelifer, which was previously known from a single species from Kenya. A related species, N. paralius, was recorded in the intertidal and spray zones of Turtle Islet and appeared restricted to that locality (ANPWS 1989b).
VERTEBRATE TERRESTRIAL FAUNA
The Reserves contain extensive seabird colonies of great significance to the ecological balance of the Coral Sea region. Scientific surveys and regular patrols to the Reserves (see section 4.6) indicate that 14 seabird species use the cays of the Reserves for breeding. While some of these species (such as the red-footed booby Sula sula, least frigatebird Fregata ariel, great frigatebird Fregata minor, and red-tailed tropicbird Phaethon rubricauda) have an extensive distribution outside of Australian waters, they are uncommon within Australia and the Reserves contain a significant proportion of the region’s breeding populations (Baker et al. 2000). Attachment C provides a list of bird species recorded from Coringa-Herald NNR and Lihou Reef NNR.
Prior to proclamation of the Reserves, isolation of the area constrained ornithological exploration. Early post-proclamation visits concentrated on the inventory of seabirds for each islet/cay and investigation of seabird breeding cycles. From 1979 to 1991 opportunistic surveys and population assessments were conducted as part of annual patrols to the area and an ornithological database was established. Obtaining accurate and precise estimates of birds breeding in remote localities poses significant logistical and resource challenges. Following a review of the monitoring program in 1992 (Martin 1994), a design and estimation methodology for this project has been adopted in subsequent patrols that is scientifically rigorous and unique (Welsh et al. 2000). The monitoring program, which is essential to enable assessment of impacts on the stability of the region’s seabird populations, focuses on the following species: least frigatebird, great frigatebird, red-footed booby, brown booby Sula leucogaster, masked booby Sula dactylatra, black noddy Anous minutus, and red-tailed tropicbird.
Breeding of red-footed boobies, red tailed tropicbirds and frigatebirds is largely seasonal on North East Herald Cay, although eggs and chicks can be found at any time. Most breeding commences at the end of the cyclone season in March-April and continues during the cooler months. The red-footed booby population has remained relatively stable at about 150 pairs in Argusia shrubland and 1000 pairs in the Pisonia/Cordia forest. Lower counts of frigatebirds in recent years may represent poor seasons or just reflect an earlier than usual breeding season with most of the chicks already fledged (Baker et al., 2000). In a nest survey of red-tailed tropicbirds on North-East Cay in June 1997, 367 active nests were recorded. The number of nests recorded makes this the largest known population of this species in the Coral Sea and the second largest in Australia (after Christmas Island, Indian Ocean) (James, in press a)
The buff-banded rail Gallirallus philippensis subsp. and the purple swamphen are the only known land birds that breed in the Reserves (ANPWS 1989a,b; James, in press b). A further 22 sea and land bird species are recorded as regular or vagrant non-breeding visitors to the Reserves (ANPWS 1989a, b; Weston et al. 1991).
A total of 17 of the 28 species of birds recorded from Coringa-Herald NNR and 16 of the 24 species recorded from Lihou Reef NNR are listed in the JAMBA and CAMBA agreements (ANPWS 1989a,b; Weston et al. 1991).
There are no known native terrestrial mammals within the Reserves. The black rat, Rattus rattus, which was believed to have been introduced by mariners in the mid-20th century, persisted on South West Coringa Islet for many years (ANPWS 1989a). Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service personnel established a rat eradication program in 1985. In June 1991 an intensive baiting program was carried out to eradicate rats from the Islet (Weston et al. 1991) and no evidence of rats has been found subsequently (Hallam et al. 1999a, b).
Geckos Gehyra mutilata are common on South West Coringa Islet (Weston et al. 1991).
4.5 Cultural Values
Early explorers had to negotiate the treacherous reefs of the Coral Sea using inadequate navigation charts. Lihou Reef appears to have been the site of more shipwrecks than the Coringa-Herald cays. There are several well-documented wrecks on Lihou Reef, including the Elizabeth (1892), the S.S. Queen Cristina (1899) and the Kyoten Maru (1982). In addition, the superstructures of a number of post-1900 wrecks whose origins have not yet been established are visible on Lihou Reef.
There is one known historic shipwreck in the Coringa-Herald NNR, the Coringa Packet, which foundered off Chilcott Islet in 1845.
Shipwrecks located within the Reserves are protected under the Historic Shipwrecks Act 1976 if they are more than 75 years old. The Minister for the Environment and Heritage can also declare historically significant wrecks, articles, and relics that are fewer than 75 years old to be protected historic shipwrecks or historic relics.
Relics of guano mining remain on Chilcott Islet in Coringa-Herald NNR (ANPWS 1989a). Officially, the only licence to mine guano at Chilcott Islet was issued in 1877 and was valid for seven years (Coleman 1992).
The remains of two beach rock slab constructions were found during the 1991 survey of Georgina Cay in Lihou Reef NNR. The constructions were thought to resemble Chinese graves (Weston et al. 1991).
4.6 Social and Economic Values
Due to their remote location, access to the Reserves can be made only by private vessels, charter tours, or in conjunction with Environment Australia patrols on RAN and Coastwatch vessels. However, with the advent of new technology, such as Global Positioning Systems, visitation to the Reserves may increase in the future. Estimated numbers of visitors to the Reserves have ranged from 100 to 200 per year over the last decade, with no discernible upward trend.
4.6.1 Research and Monitoring
Environment Australia runs a monitoring program within the Reserves targeted at seabird species, green turtles, vegetation and marine debris. Special research projects outside of this monitoring program are undertaken on an ad-hoc basis. The objectives of the monitoring program in are to:
- monitor seabirds and vegetation, in a way that is consistent with the management objectives of the Reserves, to allow for interpretation of population trends and species type and density in relation to environmental factors, particularly human disturbance (see Section 4.4.2);
- monitor nesting green turtle populations in a way that is consistent with the management objectives of the Reserves, and as recommended in the draft recovery plan for marine turtles (see Section 4.4.2);
- record, collect, and remove marine debris;
- monitor presence/outbreaks of scale insect attack on the Pisonia forest;
- check visitor log books and record details of visitation; and
Despite the importance of baseline studies for future management, the remoteness of the Reserves has limited the level of scientific research conducted and many aspects of the marine and terrestrial environment are yet to be adequately researched. The monitoring program and other survey work, such as the 1997 Royal Geographical Society of Queensland expedition, have made a substantial contribution to the scientific knowledge of the Reserves and to their national and international significance as a breeding and nesting site for green turtles and seabirds. Continuation of seabird and marine turtle monitoring programs is a high priority to derive indicators of the status of these populations and to assist in their conservation. The monitoring program also provides an important undisturbed reference point for regional stock assessment of these species.
4.6.2 Tourism and Recreation
The reefs of the Reserves, with their spectacular and unusual topographic features, great variety of marine life and world-renowned reputation for extreme clarity of water, are a prime diving venue. However they can be difficult and expensive to visit. Organised dive tours and charter fishing (catch and release) were the only commercial activities permitted in the Reserves under the previous plans of management. Camping in the Reserves is not allowed, however, landings of small parties on islets and cays is allowed. All fishing is now prohibited within the Reserves, as is fish feeding.
Two commercial dive tour operators currently have permits to operate in the Reserves. Under the previous plan of management, a ‘catch and release’ fly fishing expedition was undertaken in the Lihou Reef NNR in 1998. Snorkelling, recreational fishing and special interest tours such as bird watching were also conducted occasionally within the Reserves under the previous plans of management.
4.6.3 Facilities/Installations
Only two facilities/installations have been established in the Reserves, both within the Lihou Reef NNR. A Bureau of Meteorology unmanned, automatic weather station located on Turtle Islet collects climatic data. An Australian Maritime Safety Authority (AMSA) unmanned, solar powered navigation beacon was installed in June 1999 off the eastern tip of Lihou Reef to provide a warning for vessels and to mark a turning point on a major shipping route.
Source: ANPWS 1989a,b; Weston et al. 1991.
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