Christmas Island National Park Management Plan (Cth)
COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIAEnvironment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999
CHRISTMAS ISLAND
NATIONAL PARK
MANAGEMENT PLAN
Director of National Parks
2002
Third Christmas Island National Park Management Plan
© Commonwealth of Australia 2002
ISBN 0 642 54828 9
This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part of the text may be reproduced by any process without prior written permission from the Director of National Parks.
Requests and inquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be addressed to:
The Government Conservator
Christmas Island National Park
Parks Australia North
PO Box 867
Christmas Island INDIAN OCEAN 6798
Printed on recycled paper
FOREWORD
Christmas Island supports a wide range of unique and unusual species and habitats, and is of great international conservation and scientific interest. Although the island has been mined for phosphates for much of the past century, most of its natural ecosystem remains intact.
The declaration of the Christmas Island National Park in 1980, and extensions in 1986 and 1989, placed over sixty percent of the island under the formal protection of the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1975 (now the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999). The Park provides the last remaining nesting habitat for the endangered Abbott’s Booby and Christmas Island Frigatebird, and supports many endemic plants and animals as well as many species of land crabs. The island’s geology, unique rainforest, and spectacular views are well represented in the Park. The Park's significance for conservation is reflected in the large number of nationally listed species (endangered and migratory), many of which depend on the Park for their survival.
This, the third Management Plan for Christmas Island National Park, was prepared by Parks Australia staff. The Plan takes into account representations made in response to an invitation for public input requested in December 1998, and comments received on the draft Plan released in February 2000 and subsequent on-island meetings.
The next seven years are likely to see considerable change on the island with the continuing development of the tourism industry and other enterprises. It is inevitable that the Park will face greater pressures. Relatively undisturbed natural areas are an increasingly scarce resource in the context of a globally expanding population and the loss of natural habitats, particularly in the tropics. The island’s unique tropical rainforest, large variety of endemic plants and animals, extensive coral reefs and spectacular landscapes are outstanding natural features. Maximising the opportunity for people to appreciate these, without damaging the environment is a major management challenge.
Meeting the challenge will require the involvement and support of the Christmas Island Community – and the wider world community. The purpose of this Management Plan is to establish the framework to continue to conserve the Park and its values, in the face of the pressures that will be placed upon it in the next seven years.
Peter Cochrane
Director of National Parks
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Director of National Parks is grateful to the many organisations and individuals who provided information and assistance during preparation of this Plan. Special acknowledgment is due to Faridah Bahrom and Zuraidah Mohamed (Bahasa Malay) for their assistance with translations of the Plan and to Dr W.F. Humphreys for new sections on Anchialine and Subterranean ecosystems.
The design and layout of the cover is by Max Orchard and photographs were supplied as follows
Front cover:
South coast aerial: Kevron Aerial Surveys P/L
Red crabs: Max Orchard
Abbott's Booby: Lindsay Cupper
Christmas Island Frigatebird: Max Orchard
Robber crab: Max Orchard
Back cover:
Fan Coral: Darren Hall
Anenome Fish: Jergen Freund
Whale Shark: Jergen Freund
CONTENTS
Foreword............................................................................................................................. iii
Acknowledgments................................................................................................................ iv
Understanding this Document............................................................................................... vi
Yellow Crazy Ants on Christmas Island……………………………………………………... vii
Proposed Satellite Launcing Facility…………………………………………………………...vii
Summary...................................................................................................................................... ix
Summary in Bahasa Malay................................................................................................. xvi
Summary in Mandarin.............................................................................................................
PART 1 - A DESCRIPTION OF CHRISTMAS ISLAND AND THE NATIONAL PARK 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS.................................................................................................. 3
1. LOCATION AND ACCESS......................................................................................... 3
2. HISTORY OF CHRISTMAS ISLAND......................................................................... 3
3. HISTORY OF THE NATIONAL PARK...................................................................... 7
4. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS............................................................................... 9
5. HABITATS................................................................................................................ 12
6. LAND AREA............................................................................................................. 13
7. MARINE AREA........................................................................................................ 18
8. MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES................................................................................. 20
9. CONSERVATION SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PARK................................................. 23
APPENDIX 1. Christmas Island Native Plants................................................................. 24
APPENDIX 2. Christmas Island Vertebrates.................................................................. 282
APPENDIX 3. Native Species Listed Under the EPBC Act.............................................. 28
APPENDIX 4. Native Land and Shoreline Crabs.............................................................. 30
APPENDIX 5. Fishes of Christmas Island........................................................................ 31
PART 2 - CHRISTMAS ISLAND NATIONAL PARK MANAGEMENT PLAN..... 34
TABLE OF CONTENTS.................................................................................................... 33
PART 2A - INTRODUCTORY PROVISIONS.................................................................. 33
PART 2B - OBJECTIVES AND PRESCRIBED MANAGEMENT ACTIONS.................... 39
PART 2C - ADDITIONAL MANAGEMENT PROVISIONS………………………………....69
APPENDIX A Proposed Buildings.................................................................................. 45
APPENDIX B Ramsar Information Sheet........................................................................ 45
Schedule 1 Conditions of the licence issued to the Christmas Island Water Corporation........ 45
Schedule 2 Conditions of the licence issued to the Christmas Island Power Authority........... 45
Schedule 3 Conditions of the licence issued to the Shaolin Temple Association.................... 45
Schedule 4 Conditions of the licence for the domestic occupancy of Grants Well................. 45
Schedule 5 Quarantine list of prohibited animals and plants................................................. 45
Glossary......................................................................................................................... 45
Bibliography and Further Reading..................................................................................... 45
UNDERSTANDING THIS DOCUMENT
This document is presented in three sections:
• A summary of the Plan in Chinese (Mandarin), Bahasa Malay and English.
• A location and description of Christmas Island National Park provides relevant historical, cultural and natural history information and the basis for management.
• The Management Plan for Christmas Island National Park provides the management arrangements for the Park in the form of background information, objectives and prescriptions. A comprehensive Bibliography and a Glossary have also been included at the end of this Part.
This Management Plan outlines the management direction of Christmas Island National Park for 7 years from the day of its commencement. The Plan will ensure consistent and coordinated management appropriate for a park of such national and international significance.
The Plan takes account of submissions received in response to the Christmas Island National Park ‘Have Your Say’ brochure, comments provided at Christmas Island community meetings and input and advice from the Christmas Island National Park Advisory Committee (CINPAC). It also incorporates matters raised in submissions received as a result of the release of the Draft Plan.
YELLOW CRAZY ANTS ON CHRISTMAS ISLAND
The exotic invasive yellow crazy ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes) arrived on Christmas Island more than 70 years ago, and is now widespread throughout rainforest and settled areas on the island. These ants have the ability to form multi-queened "supercolonies", in which the ants occur at enormously high densities. Supercolony formation on the island has been a relatively recent phenomenon; the first being discovered in 1989. Further dramatic increases in supercolony formation began around the mid-late 1990's.
At supercolony densities, this invasive ant species is having a devastating impact on the island's ecosystems. Red crabs, robber crabs, blue crabs and most other ground dwelling animals such as reptiles and leaf litter fauna have been, and are continuing to be, severely impacted, sometimes to the point of local extinction in heavily infested areas. By eliminating local populations of red crabs, the ants are also having a marked effect on forest composition and structure, and litter dynamics, in infested areas. Further, the feeding activities of these ants and their mutualistic scale insects can fatally stress large trees, and cause widespread canopy dieback in areas of supercolony infestation.
Following the submission, in January 1999, of a report from the Centre for the Analysis and Management of Biological Invasions (CAMBI) at Monash University, titled 'Alien Ant Invasion and Ecosystem Collapse on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean', a cooperative agreement was entered into whereby Parks Australia North and CAMBI jointly undertook to conduct research and control of this invasive species on Christmas Island.
Management and research of crazy ants was subsequently given an immediate and high priority, and progress in both areas has been steady and consistent. The implementation of objectives and prescriptions listed in the Management Plan for other Park management activities, and resources necessary for these, will be highly dependent on the requirements and outcomes of the yellow crazy ant control and research programs.
Further details about the colonisation of Christmas Island by these ants, their biology, impacts on native fauna and flora, and research and management strategies are contained in the Management Plan.
PROPOSED SATELLITE LAUNCHING FACILITY
At the time this Management Plan was being prepared a proposal to develop a satellite launching facility at South Point was being progressed. The potential environmental impacts of this proposal were assessed under the former Environment Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act 1974 (which was replaced by the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 on 16 July 2000) and approval was given subject to a number of recommendations. Should this development take place there may be impacts on the National Park that require a restructuring of the priorities of the objectives and prescriptions in the Management Plan for Park management activities. One of the conditions for approval was that a program to monitor the potential impact on seabirds be conducted by the proponent. This program was developed by the proponent with input and approval by an independent group of seabird experts. Field surveys prior to launching were started during the preparation of this Plan. Should this program detect serious impacts on the seabirds, a condition of approval requires launching to be suspended until the impact can be mitigated. Should this development proceed it is likely that the population of Christmas Island will increase and hence increase the number of visitors using the National Park. This may necessitate a change in priorities for Park management activities.
Christmas Island National Park - Management Plan
SUMMARY
This is the Management Plan for the Christmas Island National Park. A Management Plan is a requirement for all Commonwealth reserves managed by the Director of National Parks and sets out the way in which it is proposed to manage a reserve in order to provide for its protection and conservation. The legal basis for this Plan is the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.
In preparing this Management Plan the Director of National Parks has considered and taken into account:
· public comments and community consultations;
· the encouragement and regulation of the appropriate use, appreciation and enjoyment of the Park by the public;
· the preservation of the Park in its natural condition and the protection of its special features;
· the protection, conservation and management of biodiversity and heritage within the Park; and
· the protection of the Park against damage.
When approved by the Minister for the Environment and Heritage, the Management Plan will be tabled in both Houses of the Commonwealth Parliament and may be disallowed by either the House of Representatives or the Senate on a notice of motion brought within 15 sitting days. The Plan will be in effect for 7 years unless it is revoked or amended by a new Management Plan before then.
The Management Plan includes new information available from research carried out over the last five years, comments from the local community following public consultation and recent developments such as the space satellite launching proposal, closure of the casino resort and the impact of the crazy ant outbreak on the local environment.
The Christmas Island National Park Advisory Committee (CINPAC) will assist the Director of National Parks in implementing the Plan. CINPAC is made up of the Director of National Parks and representatives of the local community. Its structure will be reviewed at least once during the life of the Plan. The terms of reference for CINPAC are to:
· advise the Government Conservator on implementation of the Management Plan; and
· advise the Shire of Christmas Island and the Director of National Parks on matters relevant to the Christmas Island National Park.
The Plan is divided into two parts:
Part 1 - A Description of Christmas Island and the National Park
This part talks about the history of the island (including the first written record of the island in 1615), the history of the Park and its natural and physical characteristics such as climate, geology, habitats and the various plants and animals. Animals or plants which have been introduced, either accidentally or deliberately, such as feral cats, rats and crazy ants are also mentioned. The objectives of national parks are discussed and the conservation significance of Christmas Island National Park is explained. Christmas Island is very important and needs to be protected because most other islands in the Indian Ocean and South-East Asia region are losing habitat because of increasing human populations.
Christmas Island is a nearly intact ecosystem. The island supports the last remaining nesting habitat of the Abbott's Booby, many endemic species of plants and animals, and the world's largest remaining population of the robber crab.
Part 1 also includes lists of most animals and plants and gives their common names, their scientific names and their Malay names. Not all species of plants have a common name or a Malay name.
Part 2 - Christmas Island National Park Management Plan
This part is the formal Management Plan and sets out the specific ways in which the Park will be managed. The Director of National Parks is responsible for management of the Park. The Director discharges this responsibility through the Government Conservator and other Parks Australia staff, and with advice provided by the Christmas Island National Park Advisory Committee. Part 2 also talks in detail about how issues such as rainforest rehabilitation, weeds, feral animals, rare and endangered species, fishing, tourism, public education and research will be managed in the Park.
Each section in Part 2 gives a description or background of the particular activity, and a list of what actions the Director of National Parks will take to manage that particular activity during the life of the Plan. The lists of actions to be taken are called 'Prescriptions' .
This Management Plan will be in effect from 2002 until 2008. Towards the end of the Plan, there will be a technical audit carried out to assess how well the prescribed management actions have been implemented.
Part 2A - Introductory Provisions
Sections 1 – 6
This part includes definitions of various terms and the full title of many Government Agencies and Organisations.
The purposes of the Park under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 are the preservation of the area in its natural condition; and the encouragement and regulation of the appropriate use, appreciation and enjoyment of the area by the public.
Part 2B - Objectives and Prescribed Management Actions
For Management purposes, the Park has been divided into Two Zones - Terrestrial (land) and Marine (sea).
Section 7. Terrestrial Vegetation
Approximately 25% of the island’s rainforest has been cleared to mine phosphate. Management of vegetation today largely consists of efforts to revegetate mined areas, and to control the spread of introduced weeds.
When mining finishes in some current mine lease areas, these leases may be handed over to the Director of National Parks for rehabilitation and incorporation into the Park.
The Christmas Island Rainforest Rehabilitation Program (CIRRP) began in 1989 to revegetate old mine workings. The program is funded from a royalty, paid by the mining company to the Commonwealth Government.
Weeds are a serious problem on Christmas Island and a number of exotic trees, shrubs and vines are established in disturbed areas throughout the island. The weed section of the Plan talks about some of the major weeds and how they will be controlled. It also talks about the need to prevent the introduction and spread of any new weeds. Parks Australia staff will work closely with Quarantine and Customs to prevent further introductions.
Section 8. Terrestrial and Anchialine Animals
This section deals with the current status of the island’s native animals - many of these have been affected by human activity such as settlement, mining, hunting and fishing and the introduction of exotics. Mining resulted in the loss of approximately a quarter of the primary rainforest habitat, which was accompanied by corresponding declines in the populations of many forest animals. No further clearing of primary native vegetation that would result in habitat loss will be allowed in the Park.
One of the major threats to the island’s native animals is posed by exotic animals and plants. A number of animals are thought to have been introduced to the island since human settlement. This section provides a list of exotic wild animals, their perceived threat to native species, and proposed control actions.
Section 9. Marine Area
Native plants and animals of Christmas Island and the territorial sea around the Island outside the Park are protected by Part 9 of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Regulations 2000. Part 9 of the Regulations provides for the Minister for the Environment and Heritage to approve management plans that provide for the taking of protected species.
Approximately 42 kilometres (63%) of the island shoreline is in the Park. The sea, extending 50 metres seaward of the low water mark, where the land part of the Park meets the coast, is included in the Park (a total area of about 2.1 square kilometres). With a view to regulating fishing in all of the territorial sea around the island in a consistent way (allowing for on-going recreational fishing in the Park) an Integrated Marine Management Program (IMMP) was drafted while the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1975 and the National Parks and Wildlife Regulations were in force, and has been extensively discussed in recent years by many people in the community. It is hoped that the Program will be introduced under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 and Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Regulations 2000 during the life of this Management Plan.
This section also considers diving, boating and restrictions on taking certain species of fish in the Park.
Section 10. Access
This section describes the network of roads, tracks and walking trails in the National Park. Existing roads and tracks will be maintained and progressively upgraded to allow continued access while maintaining low environmental impact. Development of any new roads and tracks will require thorough justification and environmental impact assessment.
Section 11. Tourism
The island's natural environment, much of which is now protected within the National Park, is a major feature of interest to island visitors. The Park will therefore play a key role in the economic development of the island as an eco-tourism destination. The Director of National Parks, through Parks Australia, is involved in a range of tourism related initiatives on the island, and is actively involved in the Christmas Island Tourism Association (CITA).
At present, the land areas of the Park are used by local people and tourists for camping, walking, running, sightseeing and the enjoyment of wildlife. The coastal areas are used for boating, beach going, swimming, diving and angling.
The section also outlines the objectives for management of tourism, including preservation of the natural and artificial features of the landscape, and management of visitor access.
Section 12. Interpretation
This section talks about interpretation, which is the communication, education and information process which aims to explain about our cultural and natural heritage. Parks Australia and the Christmas Island Tourism Association provide a range of interpretation brochures, maps, photographs and displays.
The National Park has a number of interpretive signs at popular visitor sites such as Margaret Knoll, Martin Point, the Dales and the Blowholes.
The Director of National Parks and Parks Australia will continue, during the life of this Plan, to work closely with the Community in providing a range of high quality interpretive services.
This section also describes specific interpretive objectives and prescriptions during the life of this Plan, including multi-lingual information.
Section 13. Research
This section describes the research that is required in order to properly manage the National Park. Some research is undertaken by Parks Australia staff but much is undertaken by consultants and university researchers. There is a list of research activities carried out under the previous plan and a list of research priorities for this Plan. A high priority for research efforts during this Plan will be studies on the control, impact and dynamics of the yellow crazy ant.
Section 14. Administration
This section describes the Director’s operations on Christmas Island, including current Parks Australia staff levels and the type of work carried out by staff. Details of Park infrastructure and equipment are provided, as are environmental assessment and surveillance and law enforcement operations.
Section 15. Occupancies
When the Park was declared and later extended, it incorporated or enclosed land with a number of existing uses and occupancies whose continued presence in the Park had to be formally accommodated. These include:
· The Jedda Cave pumping station and waterline easement;
· The Christmas Island Power Authority’s power line easement;
· Two Chinese temples; and
· A residential occupation at Grants Well.
This section discusses how these uses and occupancies will be managed during the life of this Plan.
Section 16. Park Extensions
During the life of this Plan, Parks Australia will work closely with the Christmas Island National Park Advisory Committee, Shire of Christmas Island, CI Phosphates Pty Ltd and the Christmas Island Administration to identify any areas which could be included in the Park, and other areas, which should be excluded from any proposed Park extensions.
Part 2C – Additional Management Provisions
Sections 17 to 23
These sections talk about: delegation of powers of the Director; the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 and other relevant legislation; international agreements which apply to or affect Christmas Island or the operation of the Park such as the Japan-Australia Migratory Bird Agreement (JAMBA) and the China-Australia Migratory Bird Agreement (CAMBA); significant leases outside the Park; and, rainforest protection.
SUMMARY IN BAHASA MALAY
to be found in Associated Documents
SUMMARY IN MANDARIN
to be found in Associated Documents
A DESCRIPTION OF
CHRISTMAS ISLAND
AND THE NATIONAL PARK
PART 1 - A DESCRIPTION OF CHRISTMAS ISLAND
AND THE NATIONAL PARK
CONTENTS
1. LOCATION AND ACCESS................................................................................................. 3
2. HISTORY OF CHRISTMAS ISLAND.................................................................................. 3
3. HISTORY OF THE NATIONAL PARK............................................................................... 7
4. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS....................................................................................... 9
4.1 Climate............................................................................................................................ 9
4.2 Geology............................................................................................................................ 9
4.3 Soils............................................................................................................................... 10
4.4 Topography.................................................................................................................... 10
4.5 Hydrology....................................................................................................................... 11
5. HABITATS......................................................................................................................... 12
6. LAND AREA..................................................................................................................... 13
6.1 Terrestrial Vegetation...................................................................................................... 13
6.2 Terrestrial Vertebrates.................................................................................................... 16
6.3 Aquatic Vertebrates........................................................................................................ 18
6.4 Terrestrial Invertebrates.................................................................................................. 18
7. MARINE AREA................................................................................................................. 18
7.1 Marine Vertebrates......................................................................................................... 19
7.2 Marine Invertebrates....................................................................................................... 19
7.3 Subterranean Ecosystems................................................................................................ 20
8. MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES......................................................................................... 22
9. CONSERVATION SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PARK.......................................................... 23
APPENDIX 1 — Christmas Island Native Plants...................................................................... 24
APPENDIX 2 — Christmas Island Vertebrates......................................................................... 22
APPENDIX 3 — Native Species Listed under the EPBC Act.................................................... 28
APPENDIX 4 — Native Land and Shoreline Crabs................................................................... 30
APPENDIX 5 — Fishes of Christmas Island............................................................................. 31
Table of Figures
Figure 1. Location of Christmas Island............................................................................................ 3
Figure 2. Christmas Island National Park Boundaries....................................................................... 4
Figure 3. Map of Christmas Island Access and Visitor Destinations.................................................. 5
Figure 4. Map of Christmas Island showing Rainforest Rehabilitation Sites and Mining Fields............. 7
Figure 5. Map Showing Surface Geology....................................................................................... 11
Figure 6. Map Showing Vegetation............................................................................................... 14
Figure 7. Cave Development and Freshwater Lens........................................................................ 21
1. LOCATION AND ACCESSChristmas Island is located in the Indian Ocean at 10° 25’S and 105° 40’E. It is approximately 2800 kilometres (km) west of Darwin, 2600 km north-west of Perth, and 360 km south of the western head of Java (Figure 1). The island covers approximately 135 sq km, of which about 85 sq km (63%) is Christmas Island National Park (the Park, Figure 2). In addition to this terrestrial area, the Park includes a marine area extending 50 m seaward of the low water mark where terrestrial areas of the Park include the coastline. This marine area incorporates approximately 46 km (63%) of the island’s 73 km of coastline.
Air services to the island have been variable in recent years, with one provider withdrawing from the scheduled Perth service in 1997. At March 2002, regular passenger transport from Perth via Cocos (Keeling) Islands is currently operated by National Jet Systems under a charter arrangement with the Commonwealth. There is also a scheduled return passenger service from Jakarta in Indonesia, operated by the Community airline. There is a reasonably safe anchorage at Flying Fish Cove during the dry season (approximately April to October). Two shipping companies operate a regular shipping service ex-Perth and Singapore via Cocos (Keeling) Islands carrying essential supplies. A network of roads and tracks provides access to most parts of the island including the Park.
Figure 1. Location of Christmas Island
2. HISTORY OF CHRISTMAS ISLAND
The first written record of the island was made by John Milward on board the Thomas in 1615. On 25 December 1643, Captain William Mynors of the Royal Mary saw the island and named it after the day. Mynors could not find an anchorage and so did not land.
The first recorded landing was in 1688 by a crew from the British buccaneer vessel, Cygnet, who were sent ashore by William Dampier for water and timber. From Dampier’s description it seems that this landing was near the Dales (see Figure 3). Although several landings were made in the next 69 years, it was not until 1857 that an attempt was made by the crew of the Amethyst to explore the island. Their venture was limited by the inland cliffs and dense jungle.
The first extensive exploration was in 1887, when a small party from HMS Egeria reached the summit of Murray Hill (see Figure 3). It was this party that collected the rock specimens of almost pure phosphate of lime that were to determine the future of the island over the next century.
Figure 2. Christmas Island National Park Boundaries
In 1888 Christmas Island was declared part of the British Dominion as the result of pressure from two prospective entrepreneurs. In November 1888 George Clunies-Ross from the Cocos (Keeling) Islands landed his brother Andrew and family to establish the first settlement at Flying Fish Cove. Clunies-Ross wanted exploitation rights, and John Murray, a Scottish scientist, wanted to mine phosphate. They negotiated a joint lease for the whole of the island in 1891 to export timber, phosphate and other minerals and in 1897 formed the Christmas Island Phosphate Company. About 200 Chinese labourers, 8 Europeans and 5 Sikh policemen arrived in 1898 and phosphate mining commenced in the Phosphate Hill area. C.W. Andrews of the British Museum was commissioned by Murray to undertake a ten-month study of the island's natural history. Andrews did a comparative study when he returned in 1908. His monograph remains the classic scientific reference on the island's natural history.
The first commercial shipment of phosphate was made in 1901. The mining operation was labour intensive, and continued until World War II, when many of the European residents were evacuated in anticipation of a Japanese invasion. The Japanese invaded in 1942 and the island was occupied until 1945. During this time some phosphate was mined, but this was discontinued after the first two shiploads were torpedoed.
Figure 3. Map of Christmas Island Access and Visitor Destinations
After the war, the lease and assets of the Christmas Island Phosphate Company were sold to the Australian and New Zealand Governments. Through the Christmas Island Agreement of 1949, the Christmas Island Phosphate Commission (CIPC) was formed, with the British Phosphate Commissioners (BPC) appointed as managing agents. Phosphate mining resumed in 1946 and has continued since, except for the two years 1988–89 during which ownership of the mining lease changed. Mining began on the eastern side of the island, but spread progressively west. In the late 1960s the phosphate reserves were accurately mapped. This involved clearing parallel grid lines every 400 feet (120 m) over most of the top of the island.
On 1 January 1958, Christmas Island, which had until then been administered as part of the Colony of Singapore, became a separate colony of Great Britain. On 1 October 1958, sovereignty was transferred to Australia, and since that time the Commonwealth Government has been increasingly involved in Island affairs.
The ethnic make-up of Christmas Island is diverse. The first settlement of the Clunies-Ross family included some Javanese people, as well as Cocos-Malays. Chinese labourers were contracted when the mine was first established, and other workers came from Java and Ambon. Indians were brought to the island to supervise the labourers.
In the early days life was very difficult for the labourers working far from their families and homelands. The living conditions were primitive and work for the mine, or building railways and roads, was exhausting. Some workers lost their lives from diseases such as beri-beri, and due to harsh conditions and inadequate nutrition. In order to supplement their deficient diets, the Chinese, Malay and other Asian workers hunted some of the edible wildlife and harvested fish and other marine animals. The natural resources of the island environment were essential for the survival of these new Islanders. Despite the difficult conditions, Chinese and Malay people established strong religious and cultural practices on the island, which remain today.
Following World War II, more workers were employed from Malaysia, Singapore and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, to assist in re-establishing the mining operation and to build infrastructure. Although the mining operation was increasingly mechanised, conditions for workers remained poor. Local social and political changes occurred with the formation of the Union of Christmas Island Workers in 1975. The Union campaigned to bring island working conditions into line with mainland conditions, and for higher wages. Throughout the 1980s working conditions slowly improved. The Union remains a strong force in island social and political affairs.
In 1980, Mr W.W. Sweetland was commissioned by the Government to investigate the future of the phosphate industry. In December 1985, following the recommendations of a Government working party on the future of Christmas Island, the operations of the Phosphate Mining Company of Christmas Island were transferred to the Phosphate Mining Corporation of Christmas Island. On 11 November 1987, citing diminishing resources and industrial unrest, the Government ceased mining and began winding-up the corporation. On 26 September 1990, a lease providing for limited phosphate mining was signed between the Government and a private company, Phosphate Resources Limited (PRL). A subsequent lease was signed in 1997 for a further 21 years. This operation was limited to previously mined areas (Figure 4), and a condition of the lease is that no more primary rainforest be cleared and that a conservation levy be paid to the Commonwealth Government by the company.
The population in 1991 was 1275, of whom three-quarters were of Chinese descent, about 15% of European or Australian descent and about 8% of Malay descent. The population later increased to about 2500 following the development of a resort and casino and the launching of a 10-year, Commonwealth-funded rebuilding program to upgrade island infrastructure. Subsequent closure of the resort and casino and completion of the rebuilding program has seen the island population fall to around that of 1991.
Figure 4. Map of Christmas Island showing Rainforest Rehabilitation sites and mining fields.
Most redundant mining infrastructure has been removed and transported off the island. Privatisation of a number of Government services such as stevedoring, environmental protection and monitoring, asset services and social security has occurred.
There is currently a proposal by a private consortium to develop and construct a satellite launching facility at South Point. Mining and the public service account for most employment of residents, with the Christmas Island Shire Council and the private sector providing a varying number of jobs. Politically, Christmas Islanders are represented by the Shire Council and the federal seat of Lingiari.
3. HISTORY OF THE NATIONAL PARK
Since the first exploration of Christmas Island, there has always been interest in its natural history. John Murray (one of the partners in the original Christmas Island Phosphate Company), recognised that phosphate mining would have an impact, and commissioned C.W. Andrews of the British Museum to study the natural history of the island prior to the start of mining and after 10 years of mining. This study has served as a baseline for later natural history investigations.
The prevailing view until the late 1960s was that mining would not cause excessive damage to the natural environment, because it was planned to mine only limited areas of the island.
However, the impact of mining became a matter of general concern when the Phosphate Hill and South Point phosphate deposits were worked out and mining activities commenced in the western sector of the island. This new mining activity was obviously affecting a rare Indian Ocean seabird, Abbott’s Booby, whose last remaining nesting habitat is the inland forest of Christmas Island. Scientists and nature conservation organisations expressed their concern about the threat to Abbott’s Booby and the island environment in general. In 1973 the island Administrator formed an environmental advisory committee to report and advise on general environmental topics, and in 1974 the British Phosphate Commissioners appointed a conservation officer.
In 1974 the House of Representatives Standing Committee on Environment and Conservation examined the effect of mining and other activities on the flora and fauna of Christmas Island, with special reference to bird species in danger of extinction. It also examined rainforest rehabilitation following mining and advised on further measures to protect the environment.
One of the Standing Committee’s recommendations was that an area be reserved for conservation. As a result of this report a reconnaissance team of scientists visited Christmas Island in 1975 and broadly endorsed the recommendations of the Standing Committee. Many of the Committee’s recommendations have since been implemented and significant progress has been made with nature conservation. Some of the important developments were the appointment in 1977 of a Government Conservator to advise and assist the Administrator on conservation, the initiation of a comprehensive program monitoring the breeding success and conservation of Abbott’s Booby and the declaration of Christmas Island National Park in 1980. The appointment of the first Conservator from the New Zealand Government reflected the interest of both Governments in the island’s phosphate reserves.
The original recommendation for a reserve on Christmas Island came from members of the reconnaissance team who suggested that an area be reserved in the vicinity of Murray Hill. Declaration of the National Park followed extensive discussions between the then Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service (ANPWS), and interested parties. The reserve area was extended to include the entire south-west corner of the island, including Murray Hill. This proposal was supported by the former Department of Home Affairs and the Department of Administrative Services. In December 1978, the Christmas Island Phosphate Commission accepted the creation of a National Park in this area, and the New Zealand Government later gave their formal approval.
A notice of intent to recommend the declaration of the Christmas Island National Park and seeking public representations was published in the Gazette on 4 October 1979. Nine representations were received all supporting establishment of the Park. Subsequently Christmas Island National Park was declared by Proclamation under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1975 on 21 February 1980.
The 1983 Senate inquiry, The Preservation of the Abbott’s Booby on Christmas Island, recommended investigation of the ‘possible extension of the Christmas Island National Park to include Block 22 A and Smithson’s Bight Terraces’. Christmas Island (Stage Two) National Park, including the shore terraces around North West Point, and Christmas Island (Stage Three) National Park, on the eastern side of the original Park, were proclaimed on 31 January in 1986.
On 20 December 1989 the three National Parks together with additional areas of freshwater mangroves and other unique vegetation, much of the remaining undisturbed rainforest, crucial areas of habitat for species such as Abbott’s Booby, the Christmas Island Frigatebird and blue and red crabs, and the area extending 50 metres offshore, were incorporated into a single Park, the current Park named Christmas Island National Park.
On 16 July 2000 the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1975 was replaced by the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 and the Park is now a Commonwealth Reserve under that Act.
Before the 1986 and 1989 Proclamations, Australian and international public opinion was sought on the proposals. On both occasions many representations (mostly non-residents) were received recommending that not only the proposed extensions be proceeded with, but also that further areas be incorporated into the National Park. In response to this expression of concern for the preservation of Christmas Island and its unique environment the Australian Nature Conservation Agency (formerly ANPWS), now Parks Australia, was instructed by the Minister to prepare a proposal for further extensions to the National Park. Opposition to this action was received from the local community and as yet the proposed extensions have not been initiated. However, the current Park boundaries are generally in the process of being reviewed, particularly in the north east area, as the golf course, community purpose land use areas and quarry operations may overlap with the gazetted Park boundaries.
4. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
4.1 Climate
Christmas Island lies at the southern edge of the equatorial low pressure belt that moves north and south of the equator during the course of the year. This confers a typical tropical, equatorial climate with a wet and a dry season. The wet season is from December to April when the north-west monsoon blows. For the rest of the year south-east trade winds bring slightly lower temperatures and humidity, and much less rain. Although the seasons are distinct, south-easterly winds may occur in the wet season and some rain may fall in any month of the year.
Rainfall: The mean annual rainfall (based on data collected over the last 25 years) is 2154 millimetres. Most falls between November and May with February and March the wettest months. August, September and October are the driest months. The pattern of the average number of rain-days per month follows that of the average monthly rainfall, decreasing from 20 in March to 9 in September/October. During the monsoon, heavy downpours lasting several days and periods of humid calm weather are punctuated by gusty north-westerly winds. From May to November, long dry periods with steady south-east trade winds and occasional showers predominate. In years of significant El Nino activity in the Pacific Ocean, rainfall on the island tends to be relatively low. Cyclones and cyclonic swells from the north-west sometimes affect the island during the wet season.
Humidity: Because of the oceanic influence, relative humidity does not vary seasonally as much as rainfall, usually ranging from 80–90%. Cloud mists at higher altitudes occur during the wet season and dews are occasional.
Temperature: As with relative humidity, temperatures on the island vary little from month to month. The average daily maximum temperature reaches 28º Celsius in March/April and the average daily minimum temperature falls to 22º Celsius in August/September.
4.2 Geology
Andrews (1900), Trueman (1965), Barrie (1967), Barrett (1973), Pettifer and Polak (1979), Veeh (1985), and Varne (1988) have variously described the formation and geology of Christmas Island. The island is believed to be on a tectonic plate moving northwards a few centimetres a year that puts its present location some 700 km, or about 15 degrees of latitude, north of where it first emerged from the sea (see Figure 5). One theory is that about 60 million years ago an undersea volcano rose to the surface and a coral atoll formed. Some 20 million years ago, the atoll began to subside and limestone accumulated as the corals sank. About 10 million years ago the subsidence reversed and an island emerged in a series of uplifts that give it a stepped appearance. Each terrace was formed by the combined effects of fringing reef development and erosion of the sea cliff before the next uplift occurred. Examples of more recent faulting with lava flows (which probably occurred underwater) can be seen at the Dales, Dolly Beach, Waterfall, Ross Hill Gardens, Winifred Beach and Egeria Point. Caves and sinkholes typical of limestone formations occur at many points on the island.
Phosphate deposits: The phosphorites commonly found on coral islands were thought to originate from guano, but are now believed to result from lagoonal marine sediments on Christmas Island, although the chemistry of their formation is unclear.
4.3 Soils
The soils of Christmas Island are derived from two sources – limestone (terra rossa soils) or basaltic extrusive rocks (krasnozem soils).
Terra rossa soils: Occur mainly on exposed terraces, and are predominantly thin, red-grey soils that dry out rapidly. They may have a high phosphate content and be over 30 m deep.
Krasnozem soils: Occur in areas of volcanic activity or in fault or fissure zones. They are red brown in colour.
However, as there has been no systematic evaluation of the non mined/non phosphate reserve regions of the island it is possible that other soil types may exist. Soil microbial processes involved in nutrient cycling are not well understood and further research in this area would be desirable.
The soils are usually neutral to alkaline (pH of 7.0–8.0). The soil horizons are locally referred to in terms of C, B and A-grade ores. C-grade soils (the ‘overburden’ of miners) are the highest in the soil profile and are a reddish brown colour, with a low phosphate content and composed of the minerals crandallite and millisite. B-grade is light brown to cream in colour and composed of a mix of crandallite, millisite and apatite. A-grade material is cream to white in colour, with a high phosphate content and consists of apatite.
4.4 Topography
The coast consists of mostly sheer, rocky cliffs from 10–20 m high with a few, small sand and coral rubble beaches. The interior is a slightly undulating plateau, from 160–360 m above sea level. A series of steep slopes or cliffs with intervening narrow terraces separate the central plateau from the shore. Generally a wider terrace is located immediately inland above the shoreline.
Figure 5. Map Showing Surface Geology
4.5 Hydrology
Most rain percolates through the soil and limestone and surface run-off only occurs after heavy rain. A few perennial streams flow at the Dales, Ross Hill Gardens, The Ravine, Jones Spring, Freshwater Spring, Dolly Beach, Hosnie’s Spring and Waterfall. These streams begin as springs at the interface of limestone and less porous basalt and remain at the surface where they flow over volcanic rock. A few streams reach the sea, while others flow underground where they meet limestone. Underground water accumulates at the interface of limestone and the underlying volcanic rock strata. Here it either flows along the interface, as in the case of the flow system from Grant’s Well through Jedda Cave and Jane-up beyond, or flows down fractures in the volcanic rock. The flows along the limestone-volcanic rock interface emerge in some places as springs.
Groundwater: Underground water accumulates at the interface of limestone and the underlying volcanic rock strata. Here it either flows along the interface, as in the case of the flow system from Grant’s Well through Jedda Cave and Jane-up beyond, or flows down fractures in the volcanic rock. Where the limestone capping is below sea level, the water enters the sea via fissures, as at the ‘waterfall’ (or ‘gusher’) in the lower Daniel Roux Cave, or as more diffuse flows through smaller fissures, often within cave systems such as Freshwater Cave at Smithson’s Bight, Runaway Cave near the Golf Course and Lost Lake Cave on the north coast. There is evidence of a freshwater lens floating on top of underlying seawater. The flows just above sea level from some of the cave systems on the island are thought to be the outflows from the edges of such a lens.
It is believed that the water table in the volcanic centre of the island is higher than elsewhere owing to the relatively low permeability of that type of rock. At the edges of the island the water table drops to just above sea level owing to the much higher permeability of limestone.
5. HABITATS
Christmas Island can be viewed as a series of terraces around an irregular plateau with the lower terrace cliffs steeper and higher than the upper terraces. The deepest soils occur on the central plateau and the upper terraces. The distribution of plants can be correlated to soil depth and moisture, exposure and distance from the sea. The coastal zone is generally saline with thin soils. The zone immediately behind this is also a harsh habitat for most plants, especially where it faces the prevailing south-easterly winds. Pandanus spp. and Scaevola taccada are typical of places exposed to salt spray. Further inland, the environment becomes more sheltered and rainforest exists with structure and floristics determined by the depth and type of soil.
The island environment can be classified into 12 broad habitats.
1. Marine – the ocean waters, sand flats, caves, coral reefs and outer reef slopes and drop-offs, and coral heads or ‘bommies’.
2. Shoreline rock platforms – these occur at many locations around the island, more extensively on the western coastline between North West Point and Egeria Point. At low tide there are many tidal rock pools with a variety of marine invertebrates and fish.
3. Beaches – formed of coarse coral and shell rubble, often with limestone outcrops; there are some small sand beaches on the north and east coasts. Dolly and Greta Beaches provide habitat for hermit and ghost crabs and are the only beaches with sufficient and stable deposits of sand to support turtle nesting activity.
4. Sea cliffs – these average 10-20 m high, rising to 60 m at Steep Point. A harsh environment, exposed to salt spray and salt laden wind where plans such as Pemphis acidula, Pandanus christmatensis, Argusia argentea and Scaevola taccada are common. This is also a Silver Bosun and Brown Booby nesting habitat.
5. Terrace rainforest – an area of generally shallow soils prone to dehydration in the dry season. Open, semi-deciduous rainforest is typical on the coastal terraces, with scrambling and spiny shrubs and vines. Both vine and canopy forests also occur. Typical species are Acronychia trifoliolata, Berrya cordifolia, Calophyllum inophyllum, Erythrina variegata, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Kleinhovia hospita, Ochrosia ackeringae, Pandanus elatus, Pisonia grandis, Gyrocarpus americanus and Terminalia catappa.
6. Shallow soil rainforest on the higher terraces – generally thin soils and exposed limestone pinnacles. Typical canopy species include Celtis timorensis, Dysoxylum gaudichaudianum, Ficus microcarpa, Arenga listeri, Planchonella nitida and Tristiropsis acutangula. Vegetation has a lower upper canopy and is floristically richer than the primary evergreen rainforest of the plateau. Pockets of deeper soil occur in this region, supporting primary evergreen rainforest.
7. Limestone scree slopes and pinnacles – the inland cliffs rise out of the semi-deciduous terrace rainforest and support Ficus microcarpa, Maclura cochinchinensis, Gyrocarpus americanus, Erythrina variegata, Derringia amaranthoides and Dendrocnide spp.
8. Deeper plateau and terrace soils evergreen rainforest – typically a tall evergreen rainforest with emergent trees to 45 m and the habitat for the Abbott’s Booby. Typical emergent species are Syzygium nervosum, Ficus microcarpa, Planchonella nitida and Hernandia ovigera.
The upper canopy is comprised of Barringtonia racemosa, Inocarpus fagifer, Cryptocarya nitens, Dysoxylum gaudichaudianum and Tristiropsis acutangula. The understorey is composed of Arenga listeri, Pandanus elatus, Leea angulata, Ochrosia ackeringae, Pisonia umbellifera and various shrubs and ferns.
9. Mangrove forest – there are no coastal mangroves, but a stand of normally estuarine Bruguiera gymnorhiza and B. sexangula occurs at Hosnie’s Spring (listed as a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention) about 50 metres above sea level. Two other mangrove species occur on the east coast. Heritiera littoralis occurs on the inland terrace above Greta Beach (outside the Park) and further south towards Dolly Beach, as well as a discrete stand on the terrace above Dean’s Point. Cynometra ramiflora occurs in a single stand south of Ross Hill summit, at 220–300 m altitude, on damp soil near basalt outcrops.
10. Perennially wet areas – typically support Inocarpus fagifer and other common species and are habitat for blue crabs.
11. Karst, comprising caves, overhangs, rock crevices and sinkholes – glossy swiftlets nest in the caves and overhangs (refer to the cave management plan for details of other cave fauna).
12. Mining fields – typically limestone pinnacles, boulders, chalk and very thin soils remain after mining. These thin soils support the ferns Nephrolepis multiflora and Psilotum nudum and the exotics Mimosa invisa, M. pudica and Muntingia calabura. Stockpiles of topsoil are colonised by Claoxylon indicum, Macaranga tanarius, Melochia umbellata and the exotics, Leucaena leucocephala and Muntingia calabura.
6. LAND AREA
Flora
6.1 Terrestrial Vegetation
Three main categories of forest vegetation can be distinguished on Christmas Island: primary rainforest; marginal rainforest; and scrub forest (DuPuy 1988). Other restricted vegetation types, coastal fringe, and shorecliff and spray zone (DuPuy 1988), occur on the inland cliffs and scree slopes and at the coastal edge. These five types of natural vegetation are protected on Christmas Island under Part 9 (Schedule 12) of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Regulations 2000.
Mitchell (1974) grouped the principal canopy communities according to three altitude zones: 0 –130 m, with 35 taxa represented; 130–200 m, with 31 taxa; and over 200 m, with 26 taxa.
Mitchell recognised climax edaphic (in a stable condition influenced by the soil), climax climatic (in a stable condition and influenced by climate) and seral (successional stage) vegetation. These were subdivided as follows:
climax edaphic
• tall closed forest, deep soil phase
• closed forest, shallow soil phase
• closed forest, scree and pinnacle phase
• open forest and vine woodland
• closed forest, freshwater seepage
climax climatic
• heath shrubland
• low, closed woodland
seral vegetation
• natural vegetative colonisation of human disturbance areas
• storm damaged and tree fall sites
Tracey (1991) recognised two groups of plateau forest based on structure: – semi-deciduous mesophyll vine forest (SDMVF) and complex mesophyll vine forest (CMVF) – that he noted as being floristically simpler than CMVFs elsewhere. He classified the terrace forest into SDMVF and deciduous vine forest, and noted that ‘The common canopy species eg Pisonia grandis, Erythrina variegata and Terminalia catappa are shared with Australia’s tropical coastline, and Gyrocarpus americanus is widespread throughout tropical Australia but never reaches the size common in this forest type on Christmas Island.’
The Christmas Island vegetation map (Figure 7) has been adapted from Mitchell (1984), the Christmas Island Geographic Information System (Bureau of Rural Science 1996), and observations made by Parks Australia North staff and P. Green (Monash University), and is the model generally used for management and research purposes.
Figure 6. Map Showing Vegetation
There are 18 species that are endemic to the island (see Table 1)
Table 1. Endemic plants
Abutilon listeri shrub coast and shore terraces frequent
Arenga listeri palm most habitats frequent
Asplenium listeri fern Margaret Knoll very rare
Asystasia alba herb terrace forest occasional
Brachypeza archytas epiphytic orchid terrace forest frequent
Colubrina pedunculata shrub terrace vegetation occasional
Dendrocnide peltata tree tops of inland cliffs occasional
var. murrayana
Dicliptera maclearii herb lower terraces marginal forest rare
Flickingeria nativitatis epiphytic orchid primary rainforest occasionalGrewia insularis tree terrace forest occasional
Hoya aldrichii epiphytic vine forest canopy abundant
Ischaemum nativitatis grass pinnacles behind sea cliffs occasional
Pandanus elatus shrub or tree forest understorey frequent
Pandanus christmatensis shrub tops of shore & inland cliffs abundant
Peperomia rossii epiphytic herb distribution unknown possibly extinct
Phreatia listeri epiphytic orchid tall plateau forest canopy occasional
Zeuxine exilis terrestrial orchid distribution unknown possibly extinct
Zehneria alba vine shrubby margins or in forestPlants rare to the island. Several small, isolated occurrences of plants are known which are consequently rare on the island, though not necessarily rare elsewhere.
· Two mangroves, Bruguiera gymnorhiza and B. sexangula, occur as unusually tall trees in a half-hectare stand at Hosnie’s Spring, about 1 km east of Gannet Hill on a basalt outcrop on the shore terrace 50 m above sea level. These trees are presumed to have persisted since the area was at sea level, and the locality is listed by the Ramsar Convention as a Wetland of International Importance.
· Cynometra ramiflora – a mangrove up to 20 m tall, characteristic of the less saline areas of coastal mangrove forests. There is a single stand south of Ross Hill – another example of a coastal mangrove far from the sea.
· Bauhinia binata – a climbing shrub known from a single locality at North West Point.
· Clerodendron inerme – a scrambling shrub known from a single locality above Greta Beach.
· Commicarpus chinensis – a scrambling herb that grows on rock ledges at North West Point.
· Cycas rumphii – a cycad that occurs individually on the East Coast and as a stand near North West Point at about 300 m above sea level. This species is usually distributed by sea, suggesting that the sparse population has persisted since the island was at sea level.
· Dioscorea bulbifera – a climbing vine known from two localities: south of Camp Hill and the Greta Beach terrace.
· Entada rheedii – a huge, woody vine growing on the shore terrace of Greta Beach. The 4 cm wide, disc-shaped seeds are often washed up on this beach.
· Ischaemum muticum – a stoloniferous grass found only on the back dunes of Dolly Beach.
· Ophioglossum reticulatum – a small terrestrial fern known only in an old minefield south of Wharton Hill.
· Spondias cytherea – a large, deciduous tree known only from three localities.
· Sporobolus virginicus – a tufted grass occurring in the spray zone at Norris Point.
· Vitis flexuosa – a vine known only from three localities.
Note: some of the endemic plants described above are also rare eg. Asplenium listeri, Peperomia rossii and Zeuxine exilis.
Exotic plants. Most of the exotic plants of Christmas Island are in the settled area and along road verges and mine fields. Unfortunately, some including Cocos nucifera, Mangifera odorata, Aleurites moluccana var. molucanna, Adenanthera pavonia, Barringtonia asiatica, Spathodea campanulata, Delonix regia, Pterocarpus indicus, Muntingia calabura and Tecoma stans were planted during former minefield rehabilitation operations and most of these species are spreading in disturbed areas. Others, like Carica papaya, Psidium guajava, Mikania micrantha, Ricinus communis, Tithonia diversifolia, Clausena excavata, Antigonon leptopus, Paederia foetida, Macroptilium atropurpureum, Ipomoea spp., Stachytarpheta jamaicensis, Cordia curassavica, Celosia argentea, Leucaena leucocephala, Mimosa invisa and Mimosa pudica are also spreading quickly in disturbed areas.
Fauna
The terrestrial fauna of Christmas Island is dominated by land crabs and in particular by the red land crab Gecarcoidea natalis. Red crabs are the dominant consumers on the forest floor, and they play a major role in determining the structure and function of the rainforest on Christmas Island.
6.2 Terrestrial Vertebrates
Native Mammals. Of the five native mammals, two have become extinct since the arrival of humans. Two rat species apparently went extinct within a few years of the introduction of exotic rodents by early human colonisers. The Christmas Island shrew was thought to be extinct before two specimens were found in 1984 and 1985, and it is now listed as Critically Endangered. Despite extensive surveys in 1997–98 and 2000, there have been no confirmed sightings since. The Christmas Island pipistrelle, which is an endemic small insectivorous bat, was previously common and widespread on the island. However, in the last decade it has declined markedly in distribution and abundance, and is now classified as Endangered. It is not fully understood what has caused this rapid decline.
The Christmas Island flying-fox is an endemic subspecies which is widespread across the island. In contrast to most species of bats it is largely diurnal, and so can be easily seen in flight during the day.
Introduced mammals. Two exotic wild mammals have been introduced, the black rat (or ‘ship rat’ as it is now more commonly called) and the house mouse. There are doubtful references to two other rats – the Pacific and brown – but if they were introduced they have not survived. Feral domestic cats are numerous and widespread. Goats and pigs were once present but have now been eradicated from the island. Stray dogs occur round the settled areas.
Native reptiles. Of six native terrestrial reptiles, five are endemic. The sixth is the foreshore skink (Emoia atrocostata), common also on other oceanic islands. The five endemics include two skinks, the blue-tailed skink (Cryptoblepharus egeriae) and the forest skink (Emoia nativitatis); two geckos, the giant gecko (Cyrtodactylus sp. nov.) and the Christmas Island gecko (Lepidodactylus listeri); and one burrowing snake, the pink blind snake (Ramphotyphlops exocoeti). There has been a marked decline in the range of several species over the previous decade. The endemic blue tailed skink has virtually disappeared from the north-east and eastern parts of the island, and the Christmas Island gecko or tree gecko appears to have suffered a severe decline in numbers.
Introduced reptiles. Five exotic reptiles comprising two geckos, one skink and two snakes occur in and around the settled area. These are regionally abundant species associated with human colonisation. The house gecko (Gehyra mutilata), the barking gecko (Hemidactylus frenatus), and the black blind snake (Ramphotyphlops braminus) are found in the Park. The wolf snake (Lycodon aulicus capucinus) appears to be moving further into the rainforest, and grass skinks (Lygosoma bowringii) have recently been seen on the fringe of the Park rainforest. It is possible (although this is still to be determined) that the wolf snake is having a major impact on the conservation status of the pipistrelle bat, and possibly a number of the reptile species.
Land birds. Of the 11 native land birds and shorebirds, seven are endemic species or subspecies. The glossy cave swiftlet (Collocalia esculenta natalis) feeds on flying insects and nests in caves or overhangs. The Imperial Pigeon (Ducula whartoni) feeds mainly on fruits in the rainforest and settled areas. The Emerald Dove (Chalcophaps indica natalis) feeds on fruits, seeds and insects on the forest floor. The Christmas Island Hawk-owl (Ninox natalis– listed as endangered) and the Goshawk (Accipiter fasciatus natalis– also listed as endangered)) feed on small mammals, birds, reptiles and invertebrates. DNA sequence research has identified that the Hawk-owl should be treated as a separate species (Ninox natalis) from the Moluccan Hawk-owl (Ninox squamipila), of which it was previously thought to be a sub-species. The Christmas Island White-eye (Zosterops natalis) and the Christmas Island Thrush (Turdus poliocephalus erythropleurus) are common in the Park and feed on fruit, nectar and insects. The Australasian Kestrel (Falco cenchroides) and the White-faced Heron (Ardea novaehollandae) are established in open areas. Eastern Reef Egrets (Egretta sacra) occur in small numbers around the shoreline.The White-breasted Water Hen (Amaurornis phoenicurus) from south-east Asia is now established and breeding in the north-east section of the Park and on the fringes of the settled areas.
Seabirds. Of the eight species or sub-species of sea-birds that nest in the Park three are endemic. The most numerous sea-bird is the widespread Red-footed Booby (Sula sula rubripes), which nests in colonies in trees on many parts of the shore terrace and inland terraces. The widespread Brown Booby (Sula leucogaster plotus) nests on the ground at the edge of the seacliff and inland cliffs. Abbott’s Booby (Papasula abbotti – listed as endangered) nests on tall emergent trees of the western and southern plateau rainforest. This forest is the only remaining nesting habitat of Abbott’s Booby left in the world. Abbott’s Booby is now considered endemic to the island. The endemic Christmas Island Frigatebird (Fregata andrewsi – listed as endangered) has three well-defined nesting areas: one above the Golf Course; one on the western side of Smith Point below the phosphate driers; and another in the forest on the north coast between North East Point and Settlement. The widespread Great Frigatebird (Fregata minor minor) nests in trees on the shore terrace. The greatest concentrations are around North West Point and the western terraces of South Point. The Least Frigatebird (Fregata ariel) has been recorded and a nesting pair were recently observed on the shore terrace above West White Beach. The Common Noddy (Anous stolidus pileatus) nests on ledges along the seacliff and in trees on the shore terrace.
There are two species of Bosun or Tropicbird. The Red-tailed Tropicbird or Silver Bosun (Phaethon rubricauda westralis) nests in depressions along the coastal and inland cliffs while the endemic sub-species of White-tailed Tropicbird, the Golden Bosun (Phaethon lepturus fulvus), uses tree and cliff hollows all over the island.
Vagrants and migrant birds. Some 76 vagrant or migrant bird species have been recorded on the island from time to time and these include: the Pacific Golden Plover (Pluvialis fulva), Oriental Plover (Charadrius veredus), Red-capped/Kentish Plover (Charadrius spp.), Little Curlew (Numenius minutus), Ruddy Turnstone (Arenaria interpres), Common Greenshank (Tringa nebularia), Snipe spp. (Gallinago spp.), Red-necked Stint (Calidris ruficollis), Oriental Pratincole (Glareola maldivarum), Australian Pratincole (Stiltia isabella), Wedge-tailed Shearwater (Puffinus pacificus), Matsudaira’s Storm-petrel (Oceanodroma matsudairae), Australian Pelican (Pelicanus conspicillatus), Great Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo), Least Frigatebird (Fregata ariel), Striated Heron (Butorides striatus), Rufous Night Heron (Gorsachius melanolophus), Yellow Bittern (Ixobrychus sinensis), Black Bittern (Dupetor flavicollis), Sooty Oystercatcher (Haematopus fuliginosa), Grey Plover (Pluvialis squatarola), Little Ringed Plover (Charadrius dubius), Black-winged Stilt (Himantopus himantopus), Wood Sandpiper (Tringa glareola), Marsh Sandpiper (Tringa stagnatilis), Grey Wagtail (Motacilla cinerea), Yellow Wagtail (Motacilla flava), Red-rumped Swallow (Hirundo daurica), and the Fork-tailed Swift (Apus pacificus).
Introduced birds. Chickens have become feral and occur around the fringes of the Park, while some ducks and turkeys exist under semi free-range conditions in the settled area. Java Sparrows (Padda oryzivora) and Tree Sparrows (Passer montanus) are established round the settled area. Java Sparrows have also spread to the fringes of the Park in the Irvine Hill and Hanitch Hill area.
6.3 Aquatic Vertebrates
The limited availability of permanent, above-ground freshwater sources has restricted the numbers and types of aquatic vertebrates found on Christmas Island, although further surveys are required in this area. At least seven species have been recorded from freshwater environments on the island, all except one of which are probably introduced. Only one species, the native brown gudgeon, has been recorded from caves. Those species recorded to date are the Asian bony tongue (Scleropages formosus), brown gudgeon (Eleotris fusca), tilapia (Oreochromis sp.), guppy (Poecilia reticulata), mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis), swordtail (Xiphophorus maculatus) and ‘terrapins’ (Class Reptilia). Terrapins occur in the tank at Ross Hill Gardens but they have not been identified and are probably released pets or escapees.
6.4 Terrestrial Invertebrates
Most of the described terrestrial invertebrates also occur in tropical areas to the north. The inventory of the invertebrate fauna is incomplete and several hundred collected specimens await identification. To date, 20 species of terrestrial and intertidal crabs (of which 13 are regarded as true land crabs depending on the ocean only for their larval development), one freshwater prawn, 14 snails, several butterflies, some 70 moths, 90 beetles, 11 cockroaches (one of which is endemic), 30 spiders, one scorpion, five false scorpions and 1 amblypygid have been described.
The diversity and abundance of land crabs are striking features of the invertebrate fauna, not matched on any other island. All 13 species occur in the Park and all habitats support one or more species. The red crab (Gecarcoidea natalis) occurs only on Christmas Island (and sporadically on North Keeling Island), and Jackson’s crab (Sesama obtusifrons) may also be endemic as it has not been recorded elsewhere. The blue crab (Cardisoma hirtipes), though a widespread species, occurs in its blue form only on Christmas Island. The robber crab (Birgus latro) is common on Christmas Island, and although it was once widespread throughout the Indo-Pacific region many of these populations have been severely depleted. All species of land crabs migrate to the sea to spawn, and live for the duration of their various larval stages in the ocean.
Introduced terrestrial invertebrates. Honeybees, a centipede, a cockroach, two termites, four species of fruit fly, several spiders and the giant African snail have been introduced to the island and all occur in the Park. During the life of the previous plan the population of the yellow crazy ant has exponentially exploded and has formed multi-queened supercolonies at several locations on the island. This population explosion has major implications for the management of the Christmas Island ecosystem.
7. MARINE AREA
Shoreline platforms slightly above sea level occur round the island, predominantly on the coast between North West Point and Egeria Point. At low tide on these platforms there are many small pools maintained by tides and wave splashes, with a variety of invertebrates and fish. There is little algal growth due to the prevailing heavy seas. The shoreline platforms descend directly to a narrow band of shallow coral reefs with no intervening sandy, shallow reef flats. A few small beaches of coarse coral and shell rubble occur along the coastline. The shallow reefs drop off steeply so that there is little deep reef habitat before abyssal depths are reached.
7.1 Marine Vertebrates
Mammals. Spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris) are frequently seen in inshore waters and common dolphins (Delphinus delphis) occasionally. Unidentified whale species are infrequently seen round the island. There is one substantiated sighting of a humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) off the north-east coast.
Reptiles. Small numbers of green (Chelonia mydas) and very rarely hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) nest on Dolly and Greta beaches. Undetermined species of sea snakes occur round the island, with the only species recorded being the pelagic yellow-bellied sea snake (Pelamis platurus).
Fish. Some 575 species of fish have been identified from the island’s waters. The faunal composition is typical of Indo-Pacific islands with nearly 68% of species widespread in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Altogether, the fish fauna is more closely allied to the West Pacific province of the Indo-West Pacific faunal region than to the East Indian Ocean region. In fact, less than 10% of the fish are restricted to the Indian Ocean (Allen and Steene 1988, Berry 1988). As is the case with most Indo-Pacific islands the rate of endemism is low and only three species, the pygmy angelfish and two undescribed pseudochromids, are apparently endemic to Christmas and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands.Whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) and manta rays (Manta birostris) occur in inshore waters all year round, higher numbers occurring November to March. Whale sharks have recently been listed as a Threatened Species under the EPBC Act in Australian waters.
7.2 Marine Invertebrates
Christmas Island has a low diversity of coral species, which is attributed to the small size of the island, its isolation from sources of planktonic coral larvae, and the limited range of marine habitats present. During a survey in 1987, 88 species of reef building corals were collected, although this did not provide a complete census of species (Berry 1988). Extensive die-off of corals took place around the island in the early 1980s, and this may have resulted in severe depletion or local extinction of some species. In 1998 there was a widespread coral bleaching event in the Pacific and Indian Oceans and South China Sea. This event may have been triggered by the El Nino weather pattern. Large areas of the Christmas Island fringing reef were affected. The most abundant octocoral on the reefs around the island is blue coral. Gorgons and antipatharians are found in the deeper slopes. Five species of clownfish sea anemones are recorded.
Numerous sponges, including endemic species and varieties, have been found around the island.
A single species of brachiopod has been recorded. A total of 313 species of molluscs were collected in the 1987 survey. Of these, 245 were gastropods, 63 were bivalves and 13 were terebrids. Of the collections of echinoderms made over the last century, eight species are crinoids, 13 are sea stars, 33 are brittlestars, 17 are sea urchins and 16 are holuthurians.
A total of 204 crustacean species are listed for the island. Hermit crabs, Xanthioid crabs and Majid crabs are the dominant marine crabs in terms of species diversity. Grapsid crabs are a very obvious component of the intertidal habitats. Three species of rock lobster have been recorded.
The crustacean fauna reflects the dominance of coral and coral rubble habitats with relatively small areas of sand substrate and the minimal occurrence of mud and fine silts.
7.3 Subterranean Ecosystems
Subterranean fauna are found in air-filled (troglofauna) and water-filled (stygofauna) voids (Figure 7). The subterranean environment of Christmas Island is diverse and includes freshwater, marine, anchialine (subterranean connections to the sea in volcanic or limestone bedrock) and terrestrial habitats (Humphreys and Eberhard 1998).
Poorly known, the cave fauna is nonetheless a significant component of the island’s biodiversity.
With at least 12 endemic species, Christmas Island is a significant cave fauna province in an international context. The cave fauna comprises swiftlets, and a diverse assemblage of invertebrates, both terrestrial and aquatic, including a number of rare and endemic species of high conservation significance.
Notable amongst cave collected fauna are terrestrial isopods (Armadillidae: 3 new species: Taiti in prep), a scorpion (new species: globally only 14 blind scorpions are known, of which only two are known outside the New World tropics), an Amblypygi (new species: Harvey and West 1998), Campodeidae (Diplura: new species) and a nocticolid cockroach (new genus: Roth 1999).
But most notable is the anchialine system which contains a characteristic fauna (procardid Procaris sp. nov.], alpheid, hippolytid and atyid shrimps) associated with the genus Procaris otherwise known only from Bermuda, Ascension Islands and Hawaii.
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