Christmas Island National Park Management Plan 2014-2024 (Cth)
COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA
Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999
APPROVAL OF THE CHRISTMAS ISLAND NATIONAL PARK
MANAGEMENT PLAN 2014-2024I, SIMON BIRMINGHAM, Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister for the Environment, acting pursuant to section 370 of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, hereby approve the Christmas Island National Park Management Plan 2014-2024.
Dated this …6th .. day of …February……, 2014….
SIMON BIRMINGHAM
………………………………………………………
Simon Birmingham
Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister for the Environment
© Director of National Parks 2014
ISBN: 978-0-9807460-3-7
This work is copyright. Apart from any use permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced by any proces without prior written permission from the Director of National Parks. Requests and enquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be addressed to:
Director of National Parks
GPO Box 787
Canberra ACT 2601Director of National Parks Australian business number: 13051 694 963
This management plan sets out how it is proposed the park will be managed for the next ten years.
A copy of this plan is available online at Elizabeth Hutchings and Doug Brown
Photography: Director of National Parks
Foreword
Christmas Island is a spectacular oceanic island that rises abruptly from the tropical waters of the eastern Indian Ocean. Its landscape is mostly covered with tropical rainforest and the rugged limestone karst terrain supports ecosystems and species of international conservation and scientific significance. Christmas Island National Park covers approximately 85 square kilometres (63 per cent) of Christmas Island’s land area as well as an important adjacent marine area.
The park provides habitat for endangered, vulnerable, threatened and migratory species as well as endemic species, including seabirds and a diverse array of land crabs. Red crabs (Gecarcoidea natalis) are a keystone species responsible for maintaining the structure and species composition of the island’s rainforest vegetation and are renowned world wide for their annual breeding migration, which begins in the early wet season when millions of crabs migrate from the rainforest down to the sea. The park’s Hosnies Spring and The Dales are Wetlands of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention. The marine zone of the park supports over 600 fish species, including migratory whale sharks (Rhincodon typus), and other species such as threatened green (Chelonia mydas) and hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata). Like many other oceanic islands, Christmas Island’s ecosystems and native species under major threat, particularly from non-native invasive plant and animal species.
Christmas Island’s natural heritage is complemented by the island’s rich, vibrant and living cultural heritage, reflected by the many cultural and religious festivals and celebrations that are held throughout the year.
Park visitors have opportunities to participate in unique and inspirational nature-based recreational activities such as scuba diving, snorkelling, bushwalking and nature study, including observing sea and land birds, land crabs and marine species.
This management plan sets out how the Christmas Island National Park will be managed over the next ten years to protect and conserve its values. It will help identify actions to address threats to the park’s natural heritage values and support appropriate visitor use of the park. Implementation of this plan will require collaboration with and the support of the Christmas Island community and stakeholders. I look forward to working with the community and stakeholders both on and off the island to support island-wide conservation action to improve the protection and enjoyment of the unique and spectacular island environment.
Peter Cochrane
Director of National Parks
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Acknowledgements
The Director of National Parks is grateful to staff of the Department of the Environment and to the many individuals and organisations that contributed to the preparation of this management plan. In particular the Director acknowledges Christmas Island organisations and community members; natural heritage researchers; the Shire of Christmas Island and the Western Australian and Australian Government agencies that provided information and assistance or submitted comments during the development of this management plan.
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ContentsForewordi
Acknowledgementsii
Vision and executive summary 1
Vision and executive summary2
Vision and executive summary in Bahasa Malay6
Vision and executive summary in Mandarin10
A description of Christmas Island13
Location and area14
Climate14
Governance and tenure15
People and community17
History of Christmas Island17
History of Christmas Island National Park18
Park values19
Management plan for Christmas Island National Park23
Part 1 Introduction24
1. Background24
1.1.Previous management plan and audit24
1.2.Structure of this management plan24
1.3.Planning process25
1.4.Interactions with other plans and documents25
2. Introductory provisions26
2.1.Short title26
2.2.Commencement and termination26
2.3.Interpretation (including acronyms)26
2.4.Legislative context29
2.5.Purpose, content and matters to be taken into account
in a management plan33
2.6.IUCN category and zoning35
2.7.International agreements35
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Part 2 How Christmas Island National Park will be managed37
3. IUCN category37
3.1.Assigning the park to an IUCN category37
4. Natural heritage management38
4.1.Landscape38
4.2.Terrestrial vegetation43
4.3.Terrestrial animals49
4.4.Ramsar wetlands and other freshwater wetlands55
4.5.Marine and coastal ecosystems and species59
4.6.Climate change62
5. Cultural heritage management64
5.1.Cultural heritage site management64
6. Visitor and park use management65
6.1.Tourism65
6.2.Visitor experiences, activities and access68
6.3.Commercial operations73
6.4.Visitor information, education and interpretation75
7. Stakeholders and partnerships 77
7.1.Community, stakeholders and partnerships77
8. Business management79
8.1.Decision making and assessment of proposals79
8.2.Capital works and infrastructure83
8.3.Compliance and enforcement85
8.4.Incident management87
8.5.Leases, licences and associated occupancy issues89
8.6.Resource use in park operations90
8.7.Research and monitoring91
8.8.New activities not otherwise specified in this plan96
8.9.Management plan implementation and evaluation97
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AppendicesA.Australian IUCN reserve management principles in the
EPBC Regulations relevant to Christmas Island National Park101
B.Summary of results of the Technical Audit of the third
management plan for Christmas Island National Park103
C.Key result area outcomes relevant to Christmas Island National Park105
D.EPBC Act listed threatened species occurring
in Christmas Island National Park106
E.EPBC Act listed marine and migratory species occurring in
Christmas Island National Park107
F.Ramsar information sheets from the Australian Wetlands Database112
G.Commonwealth Heritage values: Christmas Island Natural Areas147
Maps
1.Location of Christmas Island14
2.Land tenure and park boundaries16
3.Native vegetation44
4.Ramsar wetlands55
5.Visitor sites72
Figures
1.Land tenure and uses on Christmas Island15
Tables
1.Decision-making processes and impact assessment procedures81
2.Impact assessment procedures: matters and considerations82
3.Key features of the EPBC Regulations on bioprospecting
as they concern the park 93
Bibliography153
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Vision and
executive summary
Vision and executive summary
Vision
Christmas Island National Park is internationally recognised for its conservation, scientific and nature-based tourism values and as a place where:
- natural environments and native species are protected, conserved and restored
- visitors have inspirational, unique and rewarding experiences
- stakeholders and the community are engaged in and value the park’s conservation.
Executive summary
Introduction
Christmas Island is an isolated oceanic island, approximately 135 square kilometres in area, located in the eastern Indian Ocean. It rises steeply from the sea floor from depths of 5,000 metres. The island geology consists of porous limestone derived from ancient coral reefs overlaying volcanic basaltic rock. A uniquely structured tropical rainforest covers most of the island. About one quarter of the island has been cleared for mining and settlement purposes since 1888. Many endemic species and subspecies are found on Christmas Island.
Christmas Island National Park covers approximately 85 square kilometres (63 per cent) of the island’s land area. In addition to this terrestrial zone the park includes a marine zone extending 50 metres seaward of the low water mark and incorporates much of the island’s fringing coral reef system. The park also includes subterranean/cave and wetland ecosystems.
The park is established for the following purposes:
·the preservation of the area in its natural condition
·the appropriate use, appreciation and enjoyment of the area by the public.
Natural, scientific, and recreational values of the park
Christmas Island National Park is the only declared nature conservation area on Christmas Island, and fulfils an important role preserving examples of the natural features of the island. These features include:
·the majority of the island’s uniquely structured and largely intact tropical rainforest habitat
·unique wildlife, including 254 endemic taxa and 165 taxa occurring nowhere else in Australia, and 110 species listed as threatened, migratory or marine under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act)
·nesting colonies of large populations of diverse Indian Ocean seabirds
·diverse and abundant populations of land crabs
·largely intact fringing coral reefs and waters which support a suite of marine species with over 600 fish species, as well as hybrid fish
·significant geomorphological features including the island’s terraces and cave systems, including anchialine cave systems (caves containing a subterranean water body with connections to the ocean) which provide habitat for fauna. Anchialine cave systems occur at only one other known locality in Australia
·scenic land and seascapes that provide a sense of wilderness and impressive soundscapes
·The Dales and Hosnies Spring wetlands which are listed as Wetlands of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention
·opportunities for ecological studies of the long-term processes of dispersal, immigration, adaptation, colonisation, predation and extinction and how these events influence species
·contributions to the island’s economy by helping to support commercial tourism activities and businesses
·provision of ecological services and products for the community such as the provision of potable water.
Management of the park
The Director of National Parks is responsible for managing Commonwealth reserves that are established under the EPBC Act, including Christmas Island National Park, and does so in accordance with management plans that are prepared in accordance with the Act.
This plan sets outs how the park and its natural and cultural values will be managed, protected and conserved for a period of ten years. The park is assigned by this plan to International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) category II (national park) and will be managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation in accordance with relevant Australian IUCN reserve management principles (Appendix A).
Natural heritage management
Park management will focus on maintaining landscapes and seascapes and their associated ecosystems and natural processes as near as possible to their natural state. However, as with all isolated oceanic islands, Christmas Island’s flora and fauna is particularly vulnerable to introductions of and colonisation by invasive species such as yellow crazy ants (Anoplolepis gracilipes), feral cats, rats and weeds. A major priority of this plan is to identify and manage the impacts of threatening processes to minimise impacts on park values, ecosystem functions, processes and services and on native species.
Significant efforts will continue to be made to monitor the park environment including population trends for threatened and other significant and keystone native species.
Ecosystem rehabilitation will continue, within designated high priority areas previously subject to phosphate mining, in order to increase viable habitat for native flora and fauna such as the Abbott’s booby (Papasula abbotti), forest birds and red crabs.
There may be an opportunity to expand the area of land and sea that is included within the park. Subject to public consultation, Australian Government priorities (in relation to environmental, economic and social considerations) and the requirements of the EPBC Act, the Director will seek to extend the area of the park to include other areas of high conservation value.
These areas may include previously uncleared rainforest, successfully rehabilitated sites (that provide habitat for native species) and other high conservation value areas identified through scientific studies, including adjacent marine areas.
If areas are added to the park they will be managed in accordance with relevant provisions of this plan.
Two wetlands within the park, The Dales and Hosnies Spring, are listed on the Ramsar Convention and are managed in accordance with the Ramsar requirements for Wetlands of International Importance. The park and adjacent areas are listed on the Commonwealth Heritage List and are managed consistently with the relevant management principles under the EPBC Act (s.341Y).
This plan outlines environmental research priorities that will help increase understanding of the island’s natural environment which will aid in management and conservation of the island’s terrestrial and marine environments.
Climate change may affect all aspects of the park including the park’s natural environment, visitor use, and maintenance of facilities and infrastructure. Based on the latest scientific information available, management activities will be adapted where possible to help reduce the impacts of climate change on park values.
Cultural heritage management
There are sites of historic and cultural heritage significance within the park. These include actively used Chinese temples. It is important to describe and recognise the values of these sites and to enable associated cultural activities to continue provided they do not impact on the park’s natural values.
Use and appreciation of the park
The park’s terrestrial and marine environments and the diverse range of native species they support are major attractions for visitors to the island. Visitors to the park can participate in a range of nature-based recreational activities including wildlife observation, nature photography, scuba diving, fishing, boating, snorkelling, bushwalking and scenic walks and drives.
Increasing visitor understanding and appreciation of the park’s values is an important part of improving the visitor experience. This plan seeks to enhance visitor understanding and appreciation of the park and promote visitor use that will not impact on the natural environment or place visitors at risk.
Appropriately designed and sited infrastructure will aid in mitigating impacts by visitors on the park’s values and enhance visitor access, enjoyment and safety in the park. Incidents affecting people’s safety will be managed appropriately under standard emergency management procedures.
Commercial tourism activities that have minimal impacts on the park will be encouraged. People wishing to conduct commercial activities in the park require a permit.
Stakeholders and partnerships
Developing and maintaining good working relationships and partnerships with key stakeholders—including the community, non-government organisations, private industry, research institutions and governments—will be critical in the implementation of this plan. Where possible, the Director will engage in effective partnerships that support island-wide conservation, natural heritage research and nature-based tourism initiatives that will provide benefits to the park as well as socio-economic and scientific benefits for partners, stakeholders and residents.
Business management
The EPBC Act prohibits certain activities being undertaken in the park except in accordance with a management plan. New activities not described or foreseen in this plan will need to be assessed to determine whether they might impact on the park. Provision has been made in the plan to enable the Director to take or authorise action in response to proposed new activities and issues not currently specified in the plan.
Before the next management plan is prepared, this plan will be evaluated to determine how effective and efficient it was in achieving its intended aims.
Vision and executive summary in Bahasa Malay
Visi dan ringkasan eksekutif
Visi
Taman Negara Pulau Krismas diiktiraf di peringkat antarabangsa atas nilai pemuliharaan, saintifik dan pelancongan alamnya, sebagai tempat di mana:
- persekitaran semula jadi dan spesis asli dilindungi, dipulihara dan dipulihkan
- pelawat menikmati pengalaman yang mempesona, unik dan memuaskan
- pihak berkepentingan dan masyarakat terlibat dan menghargai pemuliharaannya.
Ringkasan eksekutif
Pengenalan
Pulau Krismas merupakan pulau terpencil, kira-kira 135 kilometer persegi luasnya, di tengah Lautan Hindia timur. Pulau ini muncul tegak dari dasar laut, yang berada sedalam 5,000 meter. Geologi pulau ini mengandungi batu kapur berliang, yang terjadi daripada terumbu karang zaman silam yang melapisi batuan basalt gunung berapi. Hutan hujan tropika dengan struktur yang unik meliputi hampir seluruh pulau. Kira-kira suku bahagian pulau telah dibuka untuk perlombongan dan petempatan sejak 1888. Banyak spesis dan subspesis yang endemik ditemui di Pulau Krismas.
Taman Negara Pulau Krismas meliputi kira-kira 85 kilometer persegi (63 peratus) daripada keluasan pulau. Selain zon daratan, taman ini juga termasuk zon lautan selebar 50 meter ke laut dari tikas air surut dan merangkumi sebahagian besar sistem terumbu karang di sekeliling pulau. Taman ini juga termasuk ekosistem bawah tanah/gua dan tanah lembap.
Taman diwujudkan untuk tujuan berikut:
·pemeliharaan kawasan ini dalam keadaan semula jadinya
·penggunaan, penghayatan dan kenikmatan kawasan ini secara wajar oleh orang ramai.
Nilai semula jadi, saintifik dan rekreasi taman
Taman Negara Pulau Krismas merupakan satu-satunya kawasan pemuliharaan semula jadi di Pulau Krismas, dan memenuhi peranan penting memelihara ciri-ciri semula jadi pulau ini. Ciri-ciri ini termasuk:
·sebahagian besar habitat hutan hujan tropika yang unik strukturnya dan masih utuh
·hidupan liar yang unik, termasuk 254 takson endemik dan 165 yang tidak wujud di tempat lain di Australia, serta 110 spesis yang disenaraikan terancam, berhijrah atau spesis laut di bawah Akta Perlindungan dan Biodiversiti 1999 (Akta EPBC)
·begitu banyak koloni burung bersarang daripada beraneka jenis burung laut Lautan Hindi
·populasi kertah (ketam darat) yang besar dan beraneka
·terumbu karang yang sebahagian besarnya masih utuh dan perairan yang menyokong berbagai spesis laut termasuk 600 spesis ikan, serta ikan hibrid
·ciri-ciri geomorforlogi penting yang meliputi sistem teres dan gua pulau ini, termasuk sistem gua ankialin (gua yang mengandungi takungan air bawah tanah yang dihubungkan dengan laut) yang menyediakan habitat untuk fauna. Hanya satu lokasi lain di Australia yang diketahui mempunyai sistem gua ankialin
·rupa bumi dan laut yang indah, menyajikan suasana liar dan gema alam yang mengagumkan
·tanah lembap The Dales dan Hosnies Spring yang disenaraikan sebagai Tanah Lembap Berkepentingan Antarabangsa di bawah Konvensyen Ramsar
·peluang pengajian ekologi tentang proses penyuraian, penghijrahan, penyesuaian, pengkolonian, pemangsaan dan kepupusan spesis serta bagaimana peristiwa-peristiwa ini menjejas spesis
·sumbangan kepada ekonomi pulau ini, dengan menyokong aktiviti dan usaha niaga pelancongan komersial
·menyediakan perkhidmatan dan produk ekologi untuk masyarakat, misalnya bekalan air minum.
Pengurusan taman
Pengarah Taman Negara bertanggungjawab menguruskan semua rizab hutan Persekutuan Australia di bawah Akta EPBC, termasuk Taman Negara Pulau Krismas, mengikut pelan pengurusan yang disusun sejajar dengan Akta.
Pelan ini membentangkan cara taman serta nilai semula jadi dan budayanya harus diuruskan, dilindungi dan dipulihara selama sepuluh tahun. Menurut pelan ini, taman ini diberikan Kategori II (taman negara) Kesatuan Pemuliharaan Alam Antarabangsa (IUCN) dan diuruskan terutamanya untuk perlindungan ekosistem dan rekreasi sejajar dengan prinsip pengurusan rizab hutan IUCN Australia (Lampiran A).
Pengurusan warisan semula jadi
Pengurusan taman ditumpukan pada pemeliharaan rupa bumi dan laut serta ekosistem berkaitan dan proses alam, seberapa hampir dengan keadaan semula jadinya. Namun, seperti di setiap pulau lain yang terpencil di lautan, flora dan fauna Pulau Krismas amat rentan terhadap pencerobohan spesis luar seperti semut kuning (Anoplolepis gracilipes), kucing liar, tikus dan rumpai. Keutamaan tertinggi pelan ialah mengenal pasti dan mengendalikan pelbagai proses yang mengancam, demi mengurangkan kesan atas nilai, fungsi ekosistem, proses dan perkhidmatan taman serta spesis asli.
Usaha-usaha utama akan tetap dilakukan bagi memantau persekitaran taman, termasuk populasi spesis terancam dan spesis asli lain yang penting.
Pemulihan ekosistem akan diteruskan, di kawasan keutamaan yang dulu merupakan lombong fosfat, demi meningkatkan habitat yang lestari untuk flora dan fauna asli seperti burung booby Abbott (Papasula abbotti), burung hutan dan ketam merah.
Kita mungkin berpeluang meluaskan kawasan tanah dan laut yang termasuk dalam taman ini. Bergantung pada pandangan orang ramai, keutamaan Kerajaan Australia (dari segi alam sekitar, ekonomi dan sosial), serta kehendak Akta EPBC, Pengarah akan memohon untuk meluaskan kawasan taman, meliputi kawasan bernilai pemuliharaan tinggi yang lain.
Kawasan tersebut mungkin termasuk hutan hujan yang belum dibuka, tapak yang berjaya dipulihkan (menyediakan habitat untuk spesis asli) dan kawasan bernilai pemuliharaan tinggi yang lain, termasuk kawasan laut bersebelahan.
Jika taman ini diluaskan, kawasan-kawasan baru akan diuruskan mengikut peruntukan pelan yang relevan.
Dua tanah lembap di taman ini, The Dales dan Hosnies Spring, disenaraikan dalam Konvensyen Ramsar dan diuruskan sejajar dengan kehendak Ramsar bagi Tanah Lembap Berkepentingan Antarabangsa. Taman ini dan kawasan bersebelahan disenaraikan dalam Senarai Warisan Persekutuan Australia dan diuruskan sejajar dengan prinsip pengurusan yang relevan di bawah Akta EPBC (s.341Y).
Pelan ini menetapkan keutamaan penyelidikan alam sekitar yang dapat meningkatkan kefahaman tentang persekitaran semula jadi pulau ini yang dapat membantu pengurusan dan pemuliharaannya.
Perubahan iklim mungkin menjejas semua aspek taman termasuk persekitaran semula jadi, penggunaannya oleh pelawat, serta penyenggaraan kemudahan dan infrastruktur. Berdasarkan maklumat saintifik terbaru, aktiviti pengurusan akan disesuaikan seberapa dapat bagi membantu mengurangkan impak perubahan iklim terhadap nilai taman.
Pengurusan warisan budaya
Taman ini mengandungi tapak-tapak sejarah dan warisan budaya yang penting. Tapak-tapak ini termasuk kuil Cina yang masih digunakan. Nilai budaya tapak-tapak ini wajar diperihalkan dan diiktiraf, sementara aktiviti budayanya wajar diteruskan selagi tidak menjejas nilai semula jadi taman ini.
Penggunaan dan penghayatan taman
Persekitaran darat dan laut taman ini serta keragaman spesis aslinya merupakan daya tarikan penting bagi pelawat. Pelawat dapat menyertai berbagai aktiviti rekreasi alam, termasuk memerhatikan hidupan liar, fotografi alam, menyelam skuba, memancing, berperahu, snorkel, meredah hutan, berjalan kaki dan bersiar dengan kereta.
Kefahaman dan penghayatan taman yang lebih tinggi merupakan aspek penting dalam usaha meningkatkan pengalaman pelawat. Pelan ini berusaha meningkatkan kefahaman dan penghayatan pelawat serta menggalakkan mereka menggunakan taman tanpa menjejas persekitaran alam atau menimbulkan risiko pada diri sendiri.
Infrastruktur dengan reka bentuk dan kedudukan yang wajar dapat membantu mengurangkan kesan pelawat pada nilai-nilai taman dan meningkatkan akses, kenikmatan dan keselamatan pelawat di taman. Apa jua kejadian yang menjejas keselamatan orang ramai akan diuruskan sewajarnya mengikut prosedur pengurusan kecemasan standard.
Aktiviti pelancongan komersial yang kurang kesan pada taman akan digalakkan. Mereka yang mahu melakukan aktiviti komersial di taman ini memerlukan permit.
Pihak berkepentingan dan rakan kongsi
Membangunkan dan mengekalkan hubungan kerja yang baik dengan pihak berkepentingan dan rakan kongsi utama — termasuk komuniti, organisasi bukan kerajaan, industri swasta, institusi penyelidikan dan kerajaan — merupakan tunjang bagi pelaksanaan pelan ini. Seberapa dapat, Pengarah akan bekerjasama dengan pihak tertentu bagi menyokong pemuliharaan seluruh pulau, penyelidikan warisan alam dan inisiatif pelancongan alam yang bermanfaat bagi taman ini serta membawa faedah sosio-ekonomi dan sains bagi para rakan kongsi, pihak berkepentingan dan pelajar.
Pengurusan perniagaan
Akta EPBC melarang sesetengah aktiviti di taman, kecuali dilakukan sejajar dengan pelan pengurusan. Aktiviti baru yang tidak diperihalkan atau diramalkan dalam pelan harus dinilai dari segi kesannya pada taman. Peruntukan telah dibuat dalam pelan supaya Pengarah dapat mengambil atau membenarkan tindakan terhadap aktiviti yang baru diusulkan dan isu yang belum ditetapkan dalam pelan.
Sebelum pelan pengurusan seterusnya dirumuskan, pelan ini akan dinilai untuk menentukan keberkesanan dan kecekapannya dalam mencapai sasaran yang dimaksudkan.
Vision and executive summary in Mandarin
愿景和执行摘要
愿景
圣诞岛国家公园因其环境保护、科学和自然旅游价值而得到全世界的公认，在这个
地方：
- 自然环境和本地物种得到保护、保育和生态恢复
- 游客从独一无二的经历中得到启发和收获
- 利益相关方和社区参与并重视公园的保护。
执行摘要
引言
圣诞岛是一座位于东印度洋中的大洋洲孤岛，面积约135平方公里。它由从5,000米
深的海床陡然上升形成。岛屿的地质情况由多孔石灰岩组成，其源自覆盖在火山玄武
岩上的古珊瑚礁。岛上大部分由结构独特的热带雨林覆盖。自1888年起，岛上已有大
约四分之一被开辟出来，供采矿和定居的用途。人们在圣诞岛上找到了很多特有的物
种和亚种。圣诞岛国家公园占全岛约85平方公里(63%)的陆地面积。除了这片陆地区域外，公园
还包括向海上延伸50米的低潮位海洋区域，包括岛屿的很多外围珊瑚礁系统。公园还
包括地下/洞穴和湿地生态系统。公园的建立出于以下目的：
·该地区的自然条件保护
·公众对该地区的适当使用、欣赏和享受。
公园的自然、科学和休闲价值
圣诞岛国家公园是圣诞岛上唯一被列为自然保育区的区域，对于保存岛屿的自然特征
起到重要的作用。这些特征包括：·岛屿上大部分结构独特和基本完好的热带雨林栖息地
·独特的野生动物，包括254 种地方性物种、165个在澳大利亚其他地方找不到
的生物分类，和110个根据《环境保护和生物多样性保护法1999》（EPBC法）
被列为受威胁的迁徙性或海洋物种
·大量各种各样印度洋海鸟的栖息地
·各种各样为数众多的地蟹
·基本完好的外围珊瑚礁和水域，孕育着一系列的海洋物种，包括超过600种鱼
类及杂交鱼
·显着的地貌特征，如岛上的梯田和洞穴系统，其中包括海蚀洞系统（即含有与
海洋连接的地下水体的洞穴） ，为动物提供栖息地。在澳大利亚境内，只有在
这里和另一个已知地域才找得到海蚀洞系统。
·风景秀丽的土地和海洋景观，给人一种旷野的感觉，并组成一幅让人难忘的声
音景观
·Dales和Hosnies Spring湿地，根据国际湿地公约被列为国际重要湿地
·有机会对生物扩散、迁移、适应、移植、捕猎和灭绝的长期过程，以及它们对
物种的影响进行生态研究。
·透过帮助商业旅游活动与商家，促进岛屿的经济
·为社区提供生态服务及产品，如提供饮用水等。
公园的管理
国家公园总监的责任是管理根据 “EPBC法”而建立的联邦保育地区，包括圣诞岛国家
公园，而管理应依照按该法制定的管理计划来进行。此计划列明了10年内将如何管理、保护和保育公园及其自然和文化价值。此计划把本
公园划为国际自然保护联盟（IUCN）第二类别（国家公园），管理重点将为保护生态
系统，和按照澳大利亚自然保护联盟有关保护区的管理原则（附录A）作休闲用途。自然遗产管理
公园管理的重点将会是把陆地和海洋景观及其相关联的生态系统和自然过程尽可能保
持在他们的自然状态。然而，如其他孤岛一样，圣诞岛的动植物特别容易受到黄色疯
狂蚂蚁（学名Anoplolepis gracilipes）、野猫、老鼠和杂草等入侵性物种的引入和
移植。此计划的主要优先事项是识别和管理这些威胁过程，把其对公园价值、生态系
统的功能、过程、服务及对本地物种的影响降至最低。工作人员将继续竭力监控园区环境，包括受威胁物种及其他重要本地物种的数量趋
势。我们将继续在之前受磷矿开采影响的指定优先领域进行生态系统恢复，以增加本土动
植物如粉嘴鲣鸟（学名Papasula abbotti）、森林鸟类和红蟹可用的栖息地。公园所含的陆地和海洋范围有可能会扩大。基于公众谘询、澳大利亚政府优先事项
（关于环境、经济和社会等因素考量）和 EPBC法的要求，总监将寻求将园区面积扩展
至其他高保育价值的区域。这些区域可能包括以前未清除的热带雨林，生态恢复成功的地点（能为当地物种提供
栖息地）和其他通过科学研究找出的高保护价值地区，包括相邻的海洋区域。如果有区域被纳入公园，这些区域将根据本计划的相关规定进行管理。
公园内的两个湿地：Dales和Hosnies Spring湿地是国际湿地公约列出的湿地，根据国
际湿地公约中对国际重要湿地的规定管理。公园和邻近地区都已被列入联邦遗产名
录，并持续以EPBC法的相关管理原则（s.341Y）进行管理。此计划概述了环境研究的重点，这将帮助我们进一步了解岛上的自然环境，进而有助
于管理和保护岛上的陆地和海洋环境。气候变化可能影响公园的各方面，其中包括公园的自然环境、游客使用以及场所和基
础设施的维护。当可行时，我们将根据最新可供利用的科学信息调整管理活动，帮助
减低气候变化对公园价值的影响。文化遗产管理
公园内有具历史意义和文化遗产意义的地点。当中包括仍在使用的中式庙宇。描述和
承认这些地点的价值，并在不影响公园自然价值的前提下让有关的文化活动继续进
行，是非常重要的。公园的使用和欣赏
公园的陆地和海洋环境和它们所孕育的各种各样本土物种，是吸引游客到岛上的主要
原因。公园的访客可以参加一系列以自然为基础的休闲活动，包括观察野生动物、自
然摄影、潜水、钓鱼、划船、浮潜、丛林健行，或散步或开车欣赏秀丽的风景。提升游客对公园价值的理解和欣赏，是改善游客体验的一个重要部分。此计划旨在加
强游客对公园的理解和欣赏、并鼓励更多游客以不影响自然环境且确保游客安全的方
式使用公园。恰当地设计和选址的基础设施将有助于减轻游客对公园价值的影响，让游客更易进
入、更愉快、更安全。若出现影响人们安全的事故，我们将根据标准的应急管理程序
作出适当处理。我们将鼓励对公园影响甚微的商业旅游活动。人们若希望在公园进行商业活动，就必
须得到许可。利益相关方和合作关系
发展和保持同重要利益相关方(包括社区、非政府组织、私营行业、研究机构和政府)
的良好合作和伙伴关系对于本计划的实施来说将会至关重要。如果可行，总监将建立
有效的合作伙伴关系，支持全岛性的保育、自然遗产研究和以自然为本的旅游举措。
这不仅仅会为公园带来好处，也会为合作伙伴、利益相关者和居民带来社会经济和科
学利益。商业管理
除非符合管理计划，EPBC法禁止在公园中进行某些活动。此计划中未描述或预见的新
活动将需要进行评估，以确定是否可能对公园造成影响。计划中已作出规定，让总监
能够响应当前未在计划中规定的新活动和问题而采取或授权行动。在制定出下一个管理计划前，将对本计划进行评估，以确定其在实现预期目标方面的
效果和效率如何。A description of
Christmas Island
A description of Christmas Island
Location and area
The Territory of Christmas Island is located in the Indian Ocean approximately 2,800 kilometres west of Darwin, 2,600 kilometres north-west of Perth and 500 kilometres south of Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia (Map 1).
The island covers an area of approximately 135 square kilometres and has 73 kilometres of coastline; Christmas Island National Park covers approximately 85 square kilometres (63 per cent) of its land mass (Map 2). The park includes a marine area where the terrestrial area of the park adjoins the sea; the marine area extends 50 metres beyond the low water line. The park’s marine area covers approximately 2.1 square kilometres and the Territory of Christmas Island waters extend 12 nautical miles from the island’s shore.
Map 1: Location of Christmas Island
Climate
Christmas Island lies at the southern edge of the equatorial low pressure belt that moves north and south of the equator during the year, providing a tropical, equatorial, oceanic climate with wet and dry seasons. The wet season is generally from December to April when the north-west monsoon prevails. Passing cyclones and high ocean swells developing from low pressure systems from the north sometimes affect the island during the wet season. For the rest of the year south-east trade winds bring slightly lower temperatures and humidity with less rain.
Mean annual rainfall is approximately 2,000 millimetres. The daytime temperature is generally between 27 and 29ºC and the overnight temperature approximately 24ºC with little temperature variation throughout the year. Relative humidity is generally constant at 80 per cent to 90 per cent throughout the year.
Governance and land tenure
Christmas Island has been an external Territory of the Commonwealth of Australia since 1958. At the time of preparing this plan, the Christmas Island Act 1958 provides the legislative basis for the Territory's administrative legislative and judicial system and is administered by the Department responsible for the administration of that Act (at the time of preparing this plan the Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development). The Minister for Infrastructure and Regional Development is responsible for the State-level services in the Territory. These services are provided through service delivery arrangements with the Western Australian Government, under contract or directly by the Australian Government. A range of Commonwealth services are provided by on-island agencies including Parks Australia, the Department of Agriculture, the Australian Federal Police and the Department of Immigration and Border Protection. Since 1992, the Christmas Island Act 1958 has also provided for the application of a range of laws of Western Australia. In 1993 the Shire of Christmas Island was formed with similar responsibilities to local governments on mainland Australia. A representation of each land tenure and major uses is shown in Figure 1 and their locations are shown in Map 2. Major land managers, owners and/or lease holders are the Director of National Parks; Territory Administration; the Shire of Christmas Island; Phosphate Resources Ltd (PRL); and the Department of Immigration and Border Protection. There are also small private (e.g. commercial and residential) land holdings.
There is potential for new developments and economic activities on Christmas Island to emerge in coming years, such as new tourism infrastructure and economic activities related to hospitality, research and education. The vast majority of these activities and developments are likely to be located outside of the park and subject to the Shire’s Local Planning Strategy/Town Planning Strategy. Some potential activities may be proposed for establishment within the park boundary, such as commercial tours, camping facilities or low impact eco-accommodation, and will be subject to the terms of this management plan and the provisions of the EPBC Act.
Figure 1: Land tenure and uses on Christmas Island
National Park
Mine lease Uncommitted Crown Land Other Committed land Map 2: Land tenure and park boundaries
People and community
Most Christmas Island residents were born in Australia or Malaysia and are of Chinese, Australian/European or Malaysian decent. English is widely spoken but many residents speak Malay, Mandarin, Cantonese or other languages. The presence of Chinese temples (Buddhist, Taoist and Confucian), a Catholic church, a Muslim mosque and a Baha’i centre and the many religious and cultural festivals observed during the year illustrate the island’s religious diversity.
In 2011 the resident population of Christmas Island was recorded as 2,072 people. The population at the time of preparing this plan is considered to be higher due to substantial but fluctuating numbers of asylum seekers and people employed in detention management activities. An increased population on Christmas Island may provide some benefits to the local economy and community, as well as provide opportunities to promote greater awareness of the natural values of the park and the island. However, an increased population on the island may have an ongoing detrimental impact on the natural values and water resources of the park and the island generally, if not effectively managed and mitigated.
In 2011 the Shire of Christmas Island prepared the Our Future: Christmas Island 2018 Plan. The 2018 Plan articulates a vision and shared community directions and priorities for the future of Christmas Island across a broad range of themes, namely: land use planning; infrastructure planning; economic diversification; community capacity and well being; governance and institutional capacity; and protecting the natural environment. This plan will help support several community directions and priorities identified in the Shire’s 2018 Plan, particularly in relation to protecting the park’s natural environment and the sustainable development of nature-based tourism within the park.
History of Christmas Island
The first recorded sighting of Christmas Island was made by John Milward on board the Thomas in 1615. It was named on 25 December 1643 by Captain William Mynors of the Royal Mary. Mynors could not find an anchorage and so did not land. The first recorded landing was in 1688 by a crew from the British buccaneer vessel, Cygnet, who were sent ashore by William Dampier for water and timber. From Dampier’s description it seems that this landing was near the Dales. Although several landings were made over the next 69 years, it was not until 1857 that an attempt was made by the crew of the Amethyst to explore the island. Their venture was limited by the inland cliffs and dense jungle.
The first extensive exploration was in 1887, when a small party from HMS Egeria reached the summit of Murray Hill. It was this party that collected the phosphate rock specimens that were to determine the future of the island over the next century. The naturalist, Mr Joseph Jackson Lister, was onboard the Egeria and made extensive collections of plants, animals and minerals. The subsequent analysis of some of these samples by John Murray, a Scottish scientist, found rock comprising almost pure phosphate of lime.
In 1888 Christmas Island was declared part of the British dominion. The decision to claim Christmas Island was as a result of pressure from George Clunies-Ross (from the Cocos (Keeling) Islands) keen for rights to cut timber, and John Murray who was keen to mine phosphate. Six months after Christmas Island became a British dominion, Andrew Clunies-Ross with a party of Cocos Malays settled at Flying Fish Cove. In 1891 George Clunies-Ross and Murray were granted a joint lease of the island and in 1897 formed the Christmas Island Phosphate Company.
In 1897, Dr Charles William Andrews of the British Museum was commissioned by John Murray to undertake a ten month study of the island’s natural history prior to starting mining. Andrews did a comparative study when he returned in 1908. His monograph remains the classic scientific reference on the island’s natural history.
Mining commenced in 1898 and in 1900 the first phosphate shipments were made. Mining continued up until World War II, ceased during the war, and resumed in 1946—it has continued since except for 1988 to 1989. After the war, the lease and assets of the Christmas Island Phosphate Company were sold to the Australian and New Zealand governments. In 1949 the Christmas Island Phosphate Commission was formed by the governments. More mine workers were employed from Malaysia, Singapore and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands and established strong religious and cultural practices which continue today. Mining was increasingly mechanised but working conditions remained poor. This led to the formation in 1975 of the Union of Christmas Island Workers, which successfully campaigned for improved working conditions.
On 1 January 1958 Christmas Island, which had until then been administered as part of the Colony of Singapore, became a separate colony of Great Britain. On 1 October 1958, sovereignty was transferred to Australia.
In 1967 the British Phosphate Commission sponsored Dr Bryan Nelson, an ornithologist, to study the status of Abbott’s booby. The report he produced triggered world wide interest in the conservation of the species (Gray 1995).
In 1980 Mr Bill Sweetland was commissioned to investigate the future of phosphate mining. From 1981 to 1987 mining was conducted by the government-owned Phosphate Mining Company of Christmas Island and Phosphate Mining Corporation of Christmas Island. In 1987 the Australian government ceased mining and began winding up the corporation. Mining resumed in 1990 when a mining lease was issued to Phosphate Resources Limited, trading as Christmas Island Phosphates. Those operations continue under a mining lease.
History of Christmas Island National Park
Environmental impacts of mining became of concern in the 1970s with a particular focus on the Abbott’s booby (Papasula abbotti), a rare seabird that only nests on Christmas Island (and which is now listed as endangered under the EPBC Act). In 1974, the House of Representatives Standing Committee on Environment and Conservation examined impacts of mining and other activities on the island’s flora and fauna, to examine the adequacy of attempts to rehabilitate the forest post-mining, and to advise on further measures required to protect the environment. One of the Committee’s recommendations was that a conservation area be reserved. On 21 February 1980 Christmas Island National Park was proclaimed under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1975. The park at that time comprised the entire south-west corner of the island.
The 1983 Senate inquiry, The Preservation of the Abbott’s Booby on Christmas Island, recommended investigating extending the park. Stages two and three of Christmas Island National Park were proclaimed on 31 January 1986.
On 20 December 1989 a further proclamation consolidated the previous three stages and further extended the boundaries of the park. The extension included additional areas of freshwater mangroves and other unique vegetation; much of the island’s remaining undisturbed rainforest; crucial habitat for species such as Abbott’s booby, Christmas Island frigatebird (Fregata andrewsi), the endemic blue crab (Discoplax celeste) and red crabs; and the sea area extending 50 metres offshore from the park’s terrestrial boundaries.
Park values
The descriptions below provide a brief summary of the Park’s values and Sections 4 to 6 describe these values in more detail.
Natural heritage values
Christmas Island's ecology is considered to be unique due to its assemblage of endemic flora and fauna, which has evolved over millions of years of evolutionary isolation and the dominance of large populations of land crabs and seabirds. The natural vegetation on Christmas Island includes large areas of tropical rainforest. The terrestrial fauna of Christmas Island is dominated by land crabs (which depend on the ocean for their larval development). The land crabs are the dominant consumers on the forest floor, and play a major role in determining the structure and function of the tropical rainforest on Christmas Island. The diversity and abundance of land crabs are striking features of the invertebrate fauna, not matched on any other island in the world. Most of the naturally occurring terrestrial vertebrates, including all the resident land birds and three of the resident sea birds (Abbott’s booby, Christmas Island frigatebird and golden bosunbird (Phaethon lepturus fulvus)), are endemic.
The island’s unique native species and ecosystems are of international significance but they are also highly vulnerable to environmental change, particularly from invasive species, climate change and habitat clearing, fragmentation and degradation.
Landscape values
Christmas Island’s naturally stepped terraced landscape rises from the ocean to a height of 361 metres. Except in areas cleared for mining and settlement, the island is primarily covered by rainforest that grows in soils formed on top of a limestone capping over the peak of a volcanic seamount that formed around 60 million years ago. The island has geologically significant subterranean cave systems, including anchialine cave systems
(a subterranean water body with connections to the ocean) which provide habitat for endemic fauna, and its geological features are significant for illustrating geological and evolutionary processes.Terrestrial vegetation
About 75 per cent of Christmas Island’s original native rainforest vegetation remains, most of which occurs in the park. Christmas Island's rainforest vegetation is characterised by a unique and distinctive structure and assemblage of plants. The distinctiveness of the vegetation results mainly from biological influences (particularly land crabs), geological history and geographic isolation over millions of years.
Christmas Island’s rainforest has affinities with Asian and Australian plant species and the island’s uniquely structured rainforests originate from vegetation types that are widely distributed in tropical latitudes. The forest vegetation contains endemic threatened plant species, as well as relict populations of mangrove species isolated during the island’s tectonic uplift.
Unlike many remote tropical islands, significant portions of Christmas Island’s rainforest vegetation, most of which is protected in the park, has persisted despite mining on the island and activities associated with human settlement, including the introduction of many invasive species. The park therefore assumes an ever-increasing conservation importance.
Terrestrial fauna
The island’s terrestrial fauna is dominated by ecologically important and diverse species of terrestrial and semi-terrestrial crabs. The island’s red crabs are keystone species that dominate and scavenge the forest floor, influencing the structure and species composition of the island’s rainforest vegetation. Their annual breeding migration from the rainforest to the sea begins in the early wet season and is one of the world’s most remarkable wildlife events. The island also supports the world’s largest population of the world’s biggest land crab, the robber crab (Birgus latro).
Christmas Island is one of the world’s significant seabird islands. More than 100 migrant and vagrant species have been recorded, including nine resident breeding seabird species (with three of these being endemic or endemic subspecies) and 23 vagrant/non-breeding seabirds. The Abbott's booby and the Christmas Island frigatebird have their only extant nesting habitat in the world on Christmas Island. There are seven endemic land birds, including the threatened Christmas Island hawk-owl (Ninox natalis), Christmas Island thrush (Turdus poliocephalus erythropleurus), Christmas Island goshawk (Accipiter hiogaster natalis) and Christmas Island emerald dove (Chalcophaps indica natalis).
The island is also important for other terrestrial fauna species. Of the six recorded native reptile species five are endemic, although these have declined to the point of near extinction. Five native endemic land mammals have been recorded. The bulldog rat (Rattus nativitatus) and Maclear’s rat (Rattus macleari) are extinct and the Christmas Island shrew (Crocidura attenuata trichura) is likely to be extinct. The Christmas Island pipistrelle (Pipistrellus murrayi) was once widespread but is now presumed extinct. This endemism highlights the importance of the island but also the vulnerability of endemic island species.
The cave fauna is of international significance due to the presence of a number of rare and endemic species that also provide evidence of evolutionary processes on the island.
Marine and coastal ecosystems and species
The island’s largely intact fringing coral reefs and waters support a suite of marine species typical of Indian Ocean tropical reefs. The recorded marine species diversity includes 88 coral species and over 600 fish species, including the whale shark (Rhincodon typus) and several other shark species, as well as hybrid fish. Two marine turtles listed as vulnerable under the EPBC Act, the green turtle (Chelonia mydas) and hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), are found in the park’s waters and green turtles occasionally nest on Dolly Beach.
International conservation value
The park provides and protects critical habitat for several internationally and EPBC Act listed endemic and/or threatened species such as land and seabirds, including most of the remaining breeding population habitat for the Abbott’s booby.
Christmas Island is listed as an ‘Endemic Bird Area’ by Birdlife International. These areas harbour a high concentration of endemic bird species, and are regarded as being of the highest priority for the global conservation of bird biodiversity.
Australia is a signatory to several international agreements for the conservation of migratory species and their habitats. Agreements that are relevant to Christmas Island are the Convention on Biological Diversity, the China, Japan and Republic of Korea Migratory Birds Agreements with Australia (CAMBA, JAMBA and ROKAMBA), the Migratory Species (Bonn) Convention. Species occurring under these agreements are listed species under the EPBC Act.
The Dales and Hosnies Spring are listed under the Ramsar Convention as Wetlands of International Importance and are therefore listed and protected under the EPBC Act. The Dales is a system of seven watercourses that contain a number of wetland types. It also exhibits unusual water-related limestone deposition features, including a 'flowstone' formation that is usually found underground. Hosnies Spring is an area of shallow freshwater springs on a shore terrace that is 24 to 37 metres above sea level. It contains a unique stand of mangroves that have persisted for around 120,000 years.
Scientific values
Oceanic islands like Christmas Island have played an important part in the development and study of ecological theories, particularly the theory of island biogeography. As a relatively well preserved oceanic island, Christmas Island’s unique ecology and endemic species provide invaluable opportunities to observe and study ecological interactions and processes of species dispersal, immigration, competition and adaptation. Opportunities include studies of endemic sea and land birds and the role of land crabs in shaping and maintaining the island’s rainforests. Such studies have enormous potential for unravelling the intricacies of island ecology and contributing to documenting and conserving the island’s biodiversity values, including by increasing national and international awareness of conservation values and issues on Christmas Island.
Some of the park’s conservation programs, including the rainforest rehabilitation and crazy ant management programs are also of scientific and technical interest and value in their own right.
Cultural and community values
Christmas Island residents use the park for a range of purposes. Residents participate in activities such as walking and running events (as well as the visitor activities described below). Some residents fish or collect fruit and seeds from introduced food plants (such as chilli, lime, papaya and pumpkin), which were planted or spread during the island’s settlement and before the land they were planted on was incorporated into the park.
There are two Chinese temples and other sites in the park where religious ceremonies are held. These buildings, buildings at Grants Well, and the building known as The Pink House research station have heritage values that may warrant specific protection.
Visitor use and educational values
The park is readily accessible and provides exceptional opportunities for the study and enjoyment of nature. Visitors to the park can experience its unique rainforests and wetlands; viewing of the annual red crab breeding migration; a large variety and number of seabirds; and spectacular and scenic land and seascapes. The island’s tranquil setting and memorable soundscapes provide opportunities for wilderness-type experiences, sightseeing, quiet use, enjoyment and inspiration and a range of recreational opportunities, such as walking, scuba diving and bird watching. Island events such as Birdweek attract visitors from Australia and overseas to enjoy the natural values of the park and the island.
Professional photographers and film makers occasionally visit Christmas Island to produce wildlife publications and documentaries, which promote the park’s natural and educational values.
Economic value
The park presents opportunities for the development of eco-tourism and specialised tourism operations which accord with the purpose and significance of the park.
Several nature-based tourist and visitor attractions on Christmas Island are centred on the park. The park helps support on- and off-island tour businesses including diving/boating, land-based tours and bird watching tours. Other businesses provide tourists and other visitors, including researchers, with services and products such as accommodation, hire vehicles and food. The value of the park as an eco-tourism destination is not fully realised and through appropriate sustainable tourism development, the park can make a greater contribution to the island’s economy while protecting the park’s values.
The park also directly employs a number of island residents and purchases goods and services from local businesses.
Ecosystem services
The ecological services used by human society that are provided by natural ecosystems are known as ecosystem services. The park’s terrestrial and marine ecosystems provide a number of ecosystem services and products that benefit the Christmas Island community. Key ecosystem services include a catchment for much of the island’s water supply; regulation of the local climate; spiritual and well-being benefits from recreational activities; and connection to the natural environment.
Management plan for
Christmas Island National Park
Part 1 - Introduction
1.Background
Part 1 of this plan outlines the context in which the management plan for Christmas Island National Park was prepared. It describes previous plans and the legislative requirements and international agreements which underpin the content of the plan.
1.1Previous management plan and audit
This will be the fourth management plan for Christmas Island National Park. The third plan came into operation on 13 March 2002 and ceased to have effect on 13 March 2009. At the time the third plan was prepared the EPBC Act provided for management plans for Commonwealth reserves to have effect for seven years. The EPBC Act now provides for management plans to have effect for ten years.
Prior to preparing this plan an audit of the third plan for the park was conducted to assess its effectiveness and to provide recommendations to assist with the preparation of this plan. The audit (DNP 2008f) highlighted a number of issues, including that the status of some of the park’s native fauna (in particular the Christmas Island pipistrelle and native reptiles) were in decline.
A summary of the audit is provided in Appendix B. The complete audit document is available online at: environment.gov.au/parks/publications/christmas/pubs/christmas-tech-audit-02-09.pdf.
1.2 Structure of this management plan
The structure of this plan reflects the Parks Australia Strategic Planning and Performance Assessment Framework, a set of priorities based on Australian Government policy and legislative requirements for the protected area estate that is the responsibility of the Director of National Parks.
The plan has been developed against the following key result areas:
·Natural heritage management (see Section 4)
·Cultural heritage management (see Section 5)
·Use and appreciation of protected areas (see Section 6)
·Stakeholders and partnerships (see Section 7)
·Business management (see Section 8)
·Biodiversity science, knowledge management and use (see Sections 4 and 8.7).
Appendix C details outcomes for the key result areas, which are also used in the periodic State of the Parks report and the Director of National Parks’ Annual Report to the Australian Parliament.
1.3 Planning process
Section 366 of the EPBC Act requires that the Director of National Parks prepare management plans for each Commonwealth reserve. Section 368 of the Act requires the Director to seek comments on this plan from members of the public and the relevant state or territory government. In response to the notice seeking public comments on the draft management plan, 11 public submissions were received and the content of these submissions was considered when finalising this plan.
Stakeholders were also consulted during the preparation of this plan and included tourism stakeholders and operators; Australian and Western Australian government departments and agencies; the Shire of Christmas Island; researchers; residents/community groups; and non-government organisations.
1.4 Interactions with other plans and documents
At the time of preparing this plan there were recovery plans covering 10 of Christmas Island’s listed species prepared under the EPBC Act. A new regional (multi species) recovery plan for Christmas Island is being prepared under the EPBC Act to incorporate all existing recovery plans into a single regional recovery plan. The primary purpose of a recovery plan is to provide the research and management actions necessary to stop the decline of, and support the recovery of, threatened species so that the chances of their long-term survival in nature are maximised. Once in place, the regional recovery plan will provide more detailed information and actions that will support and inform the implementation of the natural heritage/biodiversity management and research actions in this plan. Although this management plan recognises the need to work with stakeholders in relation to relevant off-park/cross tenure issues, this plan only applies to the park, and therefore the actions are confined to the park. However, as many threats, especially invasive species and traffic impacts on land crabs, cross or affect various land tenures (e.g. Crown Land, national park), the regional recovery plan will help to address cross tenure threats to biodiversity.
In 2009 the Commonwealth Minister for the Environment formed a scientific Expert Working Group (EWG), primarily in response to the decline of the Christmas Island pipistrelle, to provide the Minister with advice about biodiversity conservation on Christmas Island. The EWG’s final 2010 report made 32 broad-ranging recommendations aimed at reversing the decline of biodiversity and in 2011 a whole-of-government response to the Expert Working Group was prepared (Australian Government 2011). Many of the natural heritage and research actions in this plan are aimed at progressing recommendations made by the EWG and the whole of Commonwealth government response to the EWG report. In addition, the EWG report provided information that has been used in and that will help inform this plan’s implementation.
In 2010 Ecological Character Descriptions (ECDs) were prepared for The Dales (Butcher & Hale 2010) and Hosnies Spring (Hale & Butcher 2010) Ramsar sites. The ECDs describe, and aim to assist with monitoring and maintaining the ecological character of The Dales and Hosnies Spring, and this management plan includes actions to support these aims.
The Christmas Island Local Planning Strategy (LPS) is prepared by the Shire of Christmas Island (the Shire). The LPS sets out the long-term planning directions for the local government, applies Western Australian State and regional planning policies and provides the rationale for the zones and other provisions of the Town Planning Scheme (TPS). The TPS governs the way land may be used and developed through land use zoning and defines what developments are acceptable (from a town planning perspective) within these designated zones. While they apply to different land tenures, there may be some common linkages between the LPS/TPS and this management plan and may help to inform each other’s implementation. For instance each plan has information and actions that relate to sustainable tourism development and cross land tenure land management issues, such as water resource use, roads (including red crab protection measures) and cross tenure invasive species management issues.
2. Introductory provisions
2.1Short title
This management plan may be cited as the Christmas Island National Park Management Plan.
2.2Commencement and termination
This management plan will come into operation following approval by the Minister under s.370 of the EPBC Act, on a date specified by the Minister or the beginning of the day after it is registered under the Legislative Instruments Act 2003, whichever is later, and will cease to have effect ten years after commencement, unless revoked sooner or replaced with a new plan.
2.3Interpretation (including acronyms)
In this plan:
Anchialine means habitats comprising bodies of inland waters under marine tidal influence, usually salinity stratified waters with restricted exposure to the open air and with extensive connections with subterranean waters showing marine and terrestrial influences and typically occurring in limestone or volcanic coasts
Australian Government means the Government of the Commonwealth of Australia
Bonn Convention means the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals
Biodiversity Monitoring Program means the 2003–2007 biodiversity monitoring program funded by the Department of Finance and carried out by the Director
CAMBA means the Agreement between the Government of Australia and the Government of the People’s Republic of China for the Protection of Migratory Birds and their Environment
Christmas Island Act means the Christmas Island Act 1958, and includes reference to any Act amending, repealing or replacing the Christmas Island Act
Christmas Island National Park means the area declared as a national park by that name under the NPWC Act and continued under the EPBC Act by the Environmental Reform (Consequential Provisions) Act 1999
CITES means the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
Commonwealth reserve means a reserve established under Division 4 of Part 15 of the EPBC Act
CSIRO means the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
Department means the Australian Government Department responsible for the administration of the EPBC Act (at the time of preparing this plan the Department of the Environment)
Director means the Director of National Parks under s.514A of the EPBC Act, and includes Parks Australia and any person to whom the Director has delegated powers and functions under the EPBC Act in relation to Christmas Island National Park
Endemic means native plant and animal species that have a restricted geographical distribution; for the purposes of this plan it means species that are found only on Christmas Island
Ecological community means an assemblage of interdependent plant and animal species interacting with one another in a particular area
Ecosystem means an ecological community together with the physical non-living environment interacting as a functional unit
EPBC Act means the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, including Regulations under the Act, and includes reference to any Act amending, repealing or replacing the EPBC Act
EPBC Regulations or the Regulations means the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Regulations 2000 and includes reference to any Regulations amending, repealing or replacing the EPBC Regulations
Island or the island means the Territory of Christmas Island located in the Indian Ocean unless otherwise stated
IUCN means the International Union for Conservation of Nature
JAMBA means the Agreement between the Government of Australia and the Government of Japan for the Protection of Migratory Birds and Birds in Danger of Extinction and their Environment
Keystone species means those species which play a critical role in the function of an ecological community and, if lost or removed, cause significant changes in ecosystem structure and function
Landscape means an area of land composed of interacting ecosystems that are repeated in a similar form throughout the area; it includes living and non-living natural aspects as well as human influenced and human made aspects
Management plan or plan means this management plan for Christmas Island National Park, unless otherwise stated
Management principles means the Australian IUCN reserve management principles set out in Schedule 8 of the EPBC Regulations (see Appendix A)
Megalops means the second laval life stage in the development of most crabs. In this stage the legs and abdominal appendages appear for the first time and the young crabs begin to resemble an adult crab.
Minister means the Minister administering the EPBC Act
NPWC Act means the former National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1975 and the Regulations under that Act (repealed and replaced by the EPBC Act in 2000)
Park or the park means Christmas Island National Park
Parks Australia means that part of the Department that assists the Director in performing the Director’s functions under the EPBC Act
Parks Australia staff or Park staff means staff who are employees of the Department assigned to assist the Director of National Parks
Park values means the values described in the Commonwealth Heritage listing of Christmas Island Natural Areas (see Appendix G), the park values section of this plan (see A Description of Christmas Island) and Sections 4 to 8 of this plan
Ramsar Convention means the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance
Ride means to ride a non-motorised vehicle such as a pedal-powered bicycle
ROKAMBA means the Agreement between the Government of Australia and the Government of the Republic of Korea for the Protection of Migratory Birds and their Environment
Seascape means an area of sea composed of interacting ecosystems that are repeated in a similar form throughout an area; it includes living and non-living natural aspects as well as human influenced and human made aspects
Significant species means native terrestrial species listed as threatened under the EPBC Act, migratory EPBC species, species which have an important role in the ecosystem, and species of conservation concern (those which have a substantial decline or small natural endemic population size), endemic vertebrates, and/or species in which there is a high level of community interest
Territory Administration means the Australian Government Department responsible for administering the Christmas Island Act (at the time of preparing this plan the Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development)
Track for walking or riding means a track for walking or riding that has been provided by the Director in accordance with EPBC subregulation 12.55(2)
Vehicle access road has the meaning given by the EPBC Regulations namely, a road in a Commonwealth reserve that:
(a)is a sealed road; and
(b)does not have a sign displayed on or near it indicating that it is prohibited to use motor vehicles on the road at that time
Vehicle access track has the meaning given by the EPBC Regulations namely a road in a Commonwealth reserve that:
(a)is an unsealed road; and
(b)has a sign, erected by the Director, with the words ‘Vehicle Access Track’ displayed at the point or points that motor vehicles would normally access the track; and
(c)there are no signs displayed on the track indicating that it is prohibited to use motor vehicles on the track at that time.
2.4Legislative context
2.4.1EPBC Act
Objects of the Act
The objectives of the EPBC Act as set out in Part 1 of the Act are:
(a)to provide for the protection of the environment, especially those aspects of the environment that are matters of national environmental significance; and
(b)to promote ecologically sustainable development through the conservation and ecologically sustainable use of natural resources; and
(c)to promote the conservation of biodiversity; and
(ca) to provide for the protection and conservation of heritage; and
(d)to promote a co-operative approach to the protection and management of the environment involving governments, the community, land-holders and indigenous peoples; and
(e)to assist in the co-operative implementation of Australia’s international environmental responsibilities; and
(f)to recognise the role of indigenous people in the conservation and ecologically sustainable use of Australia’s biodiversity; and
(g)to promote the use of indigenous people’s knowledge of biodiversity with the involvement of, and in cooperation with, the owners of the knowledge.
Establishment and purposes of the national park
The park was declared under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1975 (NPWC Act) in four stages between 1980 and 1989. The NPWC Act was replaced by the EPBC Act in July 2000. The park continues as a Commonwealth reserve under the EPBC Act pursuant to the Environmental Reform (Consequential Provisions) Act 1999, which deems the park to have been declared for the following purposes:
·the preservation of the area in its natural condition
·the encouragement and regulation of the appropriate use, appreciation and enjoyment of the area by the public.
Director of National Parks
The Director is a corporation under the EPBC Act (s.514A) and a Commonwealth authority for the purposes of the Commonwealth Authorities and Companies Act 1997. The corporation is controlled by the person appointed by the Governor-General to the office that is also called the Director of National Parks (s.514F of the EPBC Act).
The functions of the Director (s.514B) include the administration, management and control of the park. The Director generally has power to do all things necessary or convenient for performing the Director’s functions (s.514C). The Director has a number of specified powers under the EPBC Act and EPBC Regulations, including the power to prohibit or control some activities and to issue permits for activities that are otherwise prohibited. The Director performs functions and exercises powers in accordance with this management plan.
Management plans
The EPBC Act requires the Director to prepare management plans for the park. The management plan and the Director’s powers in relation to its implementation only apply to the park. Nevertheless, this plan identifies the need for the Director to work with a range of stakeholders, for instance, to address issues such as cross tenure conservation issues (e.g. invasive species control) and nature-based tourism activities. However, this plan cannot oblige other parties to support or enable the actions identified in this plan to occur outside of the park.
When prepared, management plans are given to the Minister for approval in accordance with the EPBC Act. A management plan is a ‘legislative instrument’ for the purposes of the Legislative Instruments Act 2003 and must be registered under that Act. Following registration the plan is tabled in each House of the Commonwealth Parliament and may be disallowed by either House on a motion moved within 15 sitting days of each House after tabling.
A management plan for a Commonwealth reserve has effect for ten years, subject to being revoked or amended earlier by another management plan for the reserve.
See Section 2.5 in relation to EPBC Act requirements for a management plan.
Control of actions in Commonwealth reserves
The EPBC Act (ss.354 and 354A) prohibits certain actions being taken in Commonwealth reserves except in accordance with a management plan. These actions are:
·kill, injure, take, trade, keep or move a member of a native species; or
·damage heritage; or
·carry on an excavation; or
·erect a building or other structure; or
·carry out works; or
·take an action for commercial purposes.
The EPBC Act (ss.355 and 355A) also prohibits mining operations being taken in Commonwealth reserves except in accordance with a management plan.
The EPBC Regulations control, or allow the Director to control, a range of activities in Commonwealth reserves, such as camping, use of vehicles and vessels, littering, commercial activities and research. The Director applies the Regulations subject to and in accordance with the EPBC Act and management plans. The Regulations do not apply to the Director or to wardens or rangers appointed under the EPBC Act. Activities that are prohibited or restricted by the EPBC Regulations may be carried on if they are authorised by a permit issued by the Director and/or they are carried on in accordance with a management plan or if another exception prescribed by r.12.06(1) of the Regulations applies.
Access to biological resources in Commonwealth areas is regulated under Part 8A of the EPBC Regulations. Access to biological resources is also covered by ss.354 and 354A of the EPBC Act if the resources are members of a native species and/or if access is for commercial purposes.
Environmental impact assessment
Actions that are likely to have a significant impact on ‘matters of national environmental significance’ are subject to the referral, assessment and approval provisions of Chapters 2 to 4 of the EPBC Act (irrespective of where the action is taken).
At the time of preparing this plan, the matters of national environmental significance identified in the EPBC Act are:
·World Heritage listed properties
·National Heritage places
·Ramsar Wetlands of International Importance
·nationally listed threatened species and ecological communities
·listed migratory species
·nuclear actions (including uranium mining)
·Commonwealth marine areas
·Great Barrier Reef Marine Park.
The referral, assessment and approval provisions also apply to actions on Commonwealth land that are likely to have a significant impact on the environment and to actions taken outside Commonwealth land that are likely to have a significant impact on the environment on Commonwealth land. The park is Commonwealth land for the purposes of the EPBC Act.
Responsibility for compliance with the assessment and approval provisions of the EPBC Act lies with persons taking relevant ‘controlled’ actions. A person proposing to take an action that the person thinks may be or is a controlled action should refer the proposal to the Minister for the Minister’s decision whether or not the action is a controlled action. The Director of National Parks may also refer proposed actions to the Minister.
Wildlife protection
The EPBC Act also contains provisions (Part 13) that prohibit and regulate actions in relation to listed threatened species and ecological communities, listed migratory species, cetaceans (whales and dolphins) and listed marine species. Appendix D to this plan identifies species in the park that are listed as threatened under the EPBC Act at the time of preparing this plan. Appendix E identifies migratory and marine species that are listed under the EPBC Act and under international conventions, treaties and agreements at the time of preparing this plan.
Actions taken in a Commonwealth reserve in accordance with a management plan in relation to members of species listed under Part 13 of the EPBC Act are exempt from prohibitions that would otherwise apply under Part 13.
Part 9 of the EPBC Regulations provides for the protection and conservation of biodiversity in Commonwealth areas outside the park (i.e. all land outside the park), and prohibits and/or regulates actions affecting members of native species specified in Schedule 12 to the Regulations, and their habitat.
Heritage protection
The majority of Christmas Island including the park, adjacent areas and the ocean and sea floor surrounding Christmas Island within 500 metres of the low water mark, is listed in the Commonwealth Heritage List. Other sites on the island with cultural and historic heritage values are separately entered in the list.
In terms of National and Commonwealth Heritage listed places, the EPBC Act heritage protection provisions (ss.324A to 324ZH) relevantly provide:
·for the establishment and maintenance of a National Heritage List and a Commonwealth Heritage List, criteria and values for inclusion in either list and management principles for places that are included in the two lists
·that Commonwealth agencies must not take action that is likely to have an adverse impact on the heritage values of a place included in either list unless there is no feasible and prudent alternative to taking the action, and all measures that can reasonably be taken to mitigate the impact of the action on those values are taken
·that Commonwealth agencies that own or control places must:
i.make a written plan to protect and manage the Commonwealth Heritage values of each of its Commonwealth Heritage places
ii.prepare a written heritage strategy for managing those places and conserve their Commonwealth Heritage values, addressing any matters required by the EPBC Regulations, and consistent with Commonwealth Heritage management principles
iii.identify Commonwealth Heritage values for each place, and produce a register that sets out the Commonwealth Heritage values (if any) for each place (and do so within the time frame set out in their heritage statements)
The prescriptions within this management plan are consistent with Commonwealth Heritage management principles (Schedule 7B of the EPBC Regulations) and other relevant obligations under the EPBC Act for protecting and conserving the heritage values for which the park has been listed.
Penalties
Civil and/or criminal penalties may be imposed for breaches of the Act.
2.4.2WA legislation or Christmas Island ordinances legislation
In addition to legislation referred to elsewhere in this plan other Commonwealth Acts, and Territories Ordinances made under the Christmas Island Act are relevant either directly or indirectly to the management of the park, including:
·Administrative Ordinance 1968
·Casino Control Amendment Ordinance 2003
·Casino Legislation Ordinance 2005
·Customs Amendment Ordinance 2005
·Importation of Dogs and Cats Ordinance 1973
·Lands Ordinance 1987.
At the commencement of this plan a range of Western Australian laws are applied to Christmas Island under the Christmas Island Act as laws of the Territory, and administered by the government of Western Australia under arrangements with the Territory Administration. The applied laws include:
·Agriculture and Related Resources Protection Act 1976
·Animal Welfare Act 2002
·Dog Act 1976
·Environmental Protection Act 1986
·Firearms Act 1973
·Fish Resources Management Act 1994
·Health Act 1911
·Litter Act 1979
·Marine and Harbours Act 1981
·Mining Act 1978
·Plant Diseases Act 1914
·Road Traffic Act 1974
·Soil and Land Conservation Act 1945
·Spear-guns Control Act 1955.
2.5 Purpose, content and matters to be taken into account in a management plan
The purpose of this management plan is to describe the philosophy and direction for the management of the park for the next ten years in accordance with the EPBC Act. The plan outlines and identifies the park’s values and how they are to be protected, conserved, presented, promoted and further described. It enables management to proceed in an orderly way, provides a framework for management decisions and reconciling competing interests, and identifies priorities for the allocation of available resources.
Under s.367(1) of the EPBC Act, a management plan for a Commonwealth reserve must provide for the protection and conservation of the reserve. In particular, each management plan must:
(a)assign the reserve to an IUCN protected area category (whether or not a proclamation has assigned the reserve or a zone of the reserve to that IUCN category); and
(b)state how the reserve, or each zone of the reserve, is to be managed; and
(c)state how the natural features of the reserve, or of each zone of the reserve, are to be protected and conserved; and
(d)if the Director holds land or seabed included in the reserve under lease—be consistent with the Director’s obligations under the lease; and
(e)specify any limitation or prohibition on the exercise of a power, or performance of a function, under the EPBC Act in or in relation to the reserve; and
(f)specify any mining operation, major excavation or other works that may be carried on in the reserve, and the conditions under which it may be carried on; and
(g)specify any other operation or activity that may be carried on in the reserve; and
(h)indicate generally the activities that are to be prohibited or regulated in the reserve, and the means of prohibiting or regulating them; and
As the island is predominantly porous limestone surface water is relatively rare and significant ecologically. The perennial freshwater springs, such as Hosnies Spring and The Dales, provide significant ecological habitat for species such as Tahitian chestnut (Inocarpus fagifer), an endemic palm Arenga listeri and the semi-aquatic blue crab (Discoplax hirtipes), amongst other water dependent or preferring species. The Dales also exhibit unusual water associated limestone deposition features including a 'flowstone' formation of a form which is usually found underground.
Criterion: B Rarity
The rainforests of the island are significant as they contain one nationally vulnerable plant Carmona retusa. The island is also significant for four nationally endangered terrestrial fauna species, two notable examples of which are the Christmas Island shrew (Crocidura attenuatta trichura), which is Australia’s only shrew and the Abbott's bobby (Papasula abbotti). The island is also important for six nationally vulnerable terrestrial fauna species, notable examples include the Christmas Island frigatebird (Fregeta andrewsi) and the Christmas Island blind burrowing snake (Ramphotyphlops exocoeti).
The marine waters include two nationally vulnerable reptiles, the green turtle (Chelonia mydas) and hawksbill turtle (Eretochelys imbricata), which also nest on the island’s beaches, and two nationally vulnerable shark species.
Several features of Christmas Island's flora are regarded as unique associations and growth patterns. These include trees achieving canopy heights not commonly seen in Australia and elsewhere; examples include 30 metre high Pisonia grandis forests and unusually tall Gyrocarpus americanus emergents.
The island also has unusual relict populations of back-mangrove species and cycads, which have been left isolated by the tectonic uplift of the island. Examples of these isolated back-mangrove and cycad associations include:
- An internationally significant wetland which is an entire Brugiera sp. mangrove ecosystem growing in a freshwater spring 37 metres above sea level (ASL) at Hosnies Spring. The locality is listed by the Ramsar Convention as a Wetland of International Importance, and the mangroves are the largest of their species ever seen with canopy heights of 30-40 metres tall, the age of the stand is estimated to be 120,000 years old;
- another mangrove forest of 20 metre tall Cynometra ramiflora also isolated from the sea and found in a single stand south of Ross Hill;
- a mangrove species Heritalia littoralis which usually occurs elsewhere in mangrove habitat but has expanded its distribution on the island into a number of moist environments about the island's terraces; and,
- a cycad species Cycas rumphii which is found both in a 300 metres ASL stand near North-west Point and individually along the East coast of the island. As this cycad is usually distributed by sea it suggests the populations has persisted since the island was at sea level.
Criterion: C Research
Christmas Island is one of the most scientifically documented high oceanic islands in the world. Island ecosystems have been historically critical in the development of evolutionary theory as they highlight natural selection, speciation and niche filling. Correspondingly Christmas Islands unique ecosystems present special opportunities for the study of evolution of species in relative isolation and the adaptation of migrant species to new environments.
Notable research areas include:
- Australian researchers have noted that the successional development of many structurally and floristically simple vegetation types as seen on Christmas Island has significant implications for understanding successional processes in Australian mainland rainforests.
- The island also provides a unique research site for plant/herbivore study due to the dominance land crabs in the Island's ecological processes through the pressure their grazing of rainforest seedlings, and so upon the establishment and distribution of plant species and rainforest assemblages.
- The recent yellow crazy ant (Anoplolepsis longipes) population explosion, after fifty years of low level presence, has triggered a series of on-going detailed studies of the ant and its impacts of the ecology of the island and potential means of control.
- The islands geological formations, which include uplifted fossil reefs and volcanic deposits, are significant in illustrating the evolution of coral atolls and the evolution of the Christmas Rise due to tectonic and volcanic action.
Criterion: D Characteristic values
Christmas Island is an excellent example of a relatively large and high oceanic island with tropical rainforest. It is also an excellent example of a seabird breeding island as it relatively undisturbed when compared to other Indian ocean island such Aldabra island in the Seychelles.
The island is also a characteristic example of a tectonically uplifted coral atoll with its classic series of rainforest-coated steeped terraces. Few island systems exhibit this terraced nature due to Christmas Islands’ distinct geological history. This island also exhibits a well-developed karst landscape, which includes a diverse variety of caves and sinkholes and a correspondingly significant cave fauna.
Condition and Integrity:
Approximately one fifth of the Island has been cleared for mining purposes. Rehabilitation of mined areas has been minimal, though some areas mined after 1975 have had some rehabilitative work carried out. Approximately sixty percent of the Island is now included in the National Park which stretches from the western side of the Island, through a substantial portion of the central plateau and to parts of the island's east and north coasts. The National Park was extended in various stages (1986, 1989) from the south-western corner of the island (the initial park area was declared in 1980) to include much of the Island. This was done to incorporate most of the remaining undisturbed forest, areas of unique vegetation and habitat for species such Abbott's booby (papasula abbotti), Christmas Island frigatebird (Fregeta andrewsi) and red crabs (Gecarcoidea natalis).
Recently the yellow crazy ant (Anoplolepsis longipes) has had a population explosion, after fifty years of low level presence. These ants pose a significant threat to the millions of red crabs which migrate each November or so to the coast to spawn. Areas with the ant are noticeably devoid of red crabs as supercolonies block many of the migration paths and have caused massive mortalities during the last few seasons' migrations (as of December 2000). This ant population explosion is thought to be partially due to El Nino related dry spells, which concentrate sap in the island's trees thus attracting sap-sucking scale insects. The crazy ants tend the scale insects, through carrying them about and defending them and in turn feed off the honeydew excreted by the scale insects, so forming a mutually beneficial or symbiotic relationship. The crazy ants now occupy an estimated thirteen percent of the island (as at December 2000), and the scale is stressing the forest canopy and causing forest dieback. These infestations have implications for the island's birdlife, especially the nestlings of the Abbot's Booby and hollow dwellers such as the Christmas Island hawk owl (Ninox natalis).
The outbreak has triggered a series of detailed studies by Parks North staff and Monash University researchers, both of the ant and its impacts on the ecology of the island and potential means of control. A major baiting program has been underway since 2000 to clear the red crab migration paths and is being closely monitored.
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